MINISTRY ENERGY AND ELECTRIFICATION the USSR

MAIN SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT
ENERGY AND ELECTRIFICATION

METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
FOR CALCULATION AND DESIGN
SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

RD 34.20.115-89

SERVICE OF BEST EXPERIENCE FOR "SOYUZTEKHENERGO"

Moscow 1990

DEVELOPED State Order of the Red Banner of Labor Research Power Engineering Institute. G.M. Krzhizhanovsky

PERFORMERS M.N. EGAI, O.M. Korshunov, A.S. Leonovich, V.V. NUSHTAIKIN, V.K. RYBALKO, B.V. Tarnizhevsky, V.G. BULYCHEV

APPROVED Main Scientific and Technical Department of Energy and Electrification 07.12.89

Head V.I. GORY

The expiration date is set

from 01.01.90

until 01.01.92

Real Guidelines establish the procedure for performing the calculation and contain recommendations for the design of solar heat supply systems for residential, public and industrial buildings and structures.

The guidelines are intended for designers and engineers involved in the development of solar heating and hot water systems.

. GENERAL PROVISIONS

where f - share of the total average annual heat load provided by solar energy;

where F - SC surface area, m 2 .

where H is the average annual total solar radiation on a horizontal surface, kW h / m 2 ; located from the application;

a, b - parameters determined from the equation () and ()

where r - characteristic of the heat-insulating properties of the building envelope at a fixed value of the DHW load, is the ratio of the daily heating load at an outdoor temperature of 0 °C to the daily DHW load. The more r , the greater the share of the heating load compared to the share of the DHW load and the less perfect the building design in terms of heat losses; r = 0 is accepted when calculating only the DHW system. The characteristic is determined by the formula

where λ is the specific heat loss of the building, W / (m 3 ° С);

m - the number of hours in a day;

k - frequency rate of ventilation air exchange, 1/day;

ρ in - air density at 0 °С, kg/m3;

f - replacement ratio, approximately taken from 0.2 to 0.4.

Values ​​λ , k , V , t in , s laid down during the design of the STS.

Values ​​of the coefficient α for solar collectors II and III types

	Coefficient values
	α 1	α2	α 3	α4	α5	α6	α7	α8	a 9
	607,0	80,0		1340,0	437,5	22,5	1900,0	1125,0	25,0
	298,0	148,5	61,5	150,0	1112,0	337,5	700,0	1725,0	775,0

Values ​​of the coefficient β for solar collectors II and III types

	Coefficient values
	β1	β2	β 3	β4	β5	β6	β7	β8	β9
	1,177	0,496	0,140			0,995	3,350	5,05	1,400
	1,062	0,434	0,158	2,465	2,958	1,088	3,550	4,475	1,775

The values ​​of the coefficients a and bare from the table. .

The values ​​of the coefficients a and b depending on the type of solar collector

	Coefficient values
		0,75
		0,80

where q i - specific annual heat output of DHW at values f different from 0.5;

∆q - change in the annual specific heat output of DHW, %.

Change in the value of the specific annual heat output∆q from annual income solar radiation on a horizontal surface H and coefficient f

. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS where Z c - specific reduced costs per unit of generated thermal energy CST, rub./GJ; З b - specific reduced costs per unit of generated thermal energy by the basic installation, rub./GJ. where C c - reduced costs for FTA and understudy, rub./year; where k c - capital costs for FTA, rub.; k in - capital costs for an understudy, rub.; E n - normative coefficient of comparative efficiency of capital investments (0.1); E c - the share of operating costs from capital costs for SST; E in - the share of operating costs from capital costs for an understudy; P is the cost of a unit of thermal energy generated by an understudy, rub./GJ; N d - the amount of thermal energy generated by the understudy during the year, GJ; k e - the effect of reducing environmental pollution, rub.; k n is the social effect of saving the wages of personnel serving the understudy, rub. Specific reduced costs are determined by the formula where C b - reduced costs for the basic installation, rubles / year;	Definition of the term
	solar collector	A device for capturing solar radiation and converting it into heat and other types of energy
Hourly (daily, monthly, etc.) heat output	The amount of thermal energy removed from the collector per hour (day, month, etc.) of work
Flat plate solar collector	Non-focusing solar collector with an absorbing element of a flat configuration (of the “pipe in sheet” type, only from pipes, etc.) and flat transparent insulation
Heat-receiving surface area	The surface area of ​​the absorbing element illuminated by the sun under conditions of normal incidence of rays
Heat loss coefficient through transparent insulation (bottom, collector side walls)	The heat flux into the environment through the transparent insulation (bottom, side walls of the collector), referred to the unit area of ​​the heat-receiving surface, with a difference in the average temperatures of the absorbing element and the outside air of 1 °C
Specific coolant flow rate in a flat solar collector	Coolant flow rate in the collector, referred to the unit area of ​​the heat-receiving surface
Efficiency ratio	The value characterizing the efficiency of heat transfer from the surface of the absorbing element to the coolant and equal to the ratio of the actual heat output to the heat output, provided that all thermal resistance heat transfer from the surface of the absorbing element to the coolant is zero
Surface emissivity	Ratio of surface radiation intensity to black body radiation intensity at the same temperature
glazing capacity	Percentage of solar (infrared, visible) radiation transmitted by transparent insulation incident on the surface of transparent insulation
Understudy	Conventional thermal energy source that provides partial or full coverage of the heat load and works in combination with a solar heating system
Solar heating system	A system that covers the load of heating and hot water supply at the expense of solar energy

Appendix 2

Warmly specifications solar collectors

	collector type
Total heat loss coefficient U L, W / (m 2 ° С)
Absorption capacity of the heat-receiving surface α	0,95	0,90	0,95
The degree of emissivity of the absorbing surface in the operating temperature range of the collector ε	0,95	0,10	0,95
Glazing capacity τ p	0,87	0,87	0,72
Efficiency ratio F R	0,91	0,93	0,95
Maximum coolant temperature, °С
Notes e. I - single-glass non-selective collector; II - single glass selective collector; III - two-glass non-selective collector.

Appendix 3

Specifications of solar collectors

	Manufacturer
	Bratsk plant of heating equipment	Spetsgelioteplomontazh GSSR	KievZNIIEP	Bukhara plant of solar equipment
Length, mm	1530	1000 - 3000	1624	1100
Width, mm			1008
Height, mm		70 - 100
Weight, kg	50,5	30 - 50
Heat-receiving surface, m		0,6 - 1,5		0,62
Working pressure, MPa		0,2 - 0,6

Appendix 4

Technical characteristics of flow heat exchangers type TT

	Outer/inner diameter, mm		flow area		Heating surface of one section, m 2	Section length, mm	Weight of one section, kg
			inner pipe, cm 2	annular channel, cm 2
	inner pipe	outer pipe
TT 1-25/38-10/10	25/20	38/32	3,14	1,13		1500
TT 2-25/38-10/10	25/20	38/32	6,28	6,26		1500

Appendix 5

Annual arrival of total solar radiation on a horizontal surface (H), kW h / m 2

Azerbaijan SSR
Baku	1378
Kirovobad	1426
Mingachevir	1426
Armenian SSR
Yerevan	1701
Leninakan	1681
Sevan	1732
Nakhichevan	1783
Georgian SSR
Telavi	1498
Tbilisi	1396
Tskhakaya	1365
Kazakh SSR
Alma-Ata	1447
Guryev	1569
Fort Shevchenko	1437
Dzhezkazgan	1508
Ak-Kum	1773
Aral Sea	1630
Birsa-Kelmes	1569
Kustanay	1212
Semipalatinsk	1437
Dzhanybek	1304
Kolmykovo	1406
Kirghiz SSR
Frunze	1538
Tien Shan	1915
RSFSR
Altai region
Blagoveshchenka	1284
Astrakhan region
Astrakhan	1365
Volgograd region
Volgograd	1314
Voronezh region
Voronezh	1039
stone steppe	1111
Krasnodar region
Sochi	1365
Kuibyshev region
Kuibyshev	1172
Kursk region
Kursk	1029
Moldavian SSR
Kishinev	1304
Orenburg region
Buzuluk	1162
Rostov region
Tsimlyansk	1284
Giant	1314
Saratov region
Ershov	1263
Saratov	1233
Stavropol region
Essentuki	1294
Uzbek SSR
Samarkand	1661
Tamdybulak	1752
Takhnatash	1681
Tashkent	1559
Termez	1844
Fergana	1671
Churuk	1610
Tajik SSR
Dushanbe	1752
Turkmen SSR
Ak-Molla	1834
Ashgabat	1722
Gasan-Kuli	1783
Kara-Bogaz-Gol	1671
Chardjou	1885
Ukrainian SSR
Kherson region
Kherson	1335
Askania Nova	1335
Sumy region
Konotop	1080
Poltava region
Poltava	1100
Volyn region
Kovel	1070
Donetsk region
Donetsk	1233
Transcarpathian region
Berehove	1202
Kyiv region
Kyiv	1141
Kirovograd region
Znamenka	1161
Crimean region
Evpatoria	1386
Karadag	1426
Odessa region
	30,8	39,2	49,8	61,7	70,8	75,3	73,6	66,2	55,1	43,6	33,6	28,7
	28,8	37,2	47,8	59,7	68,8	73,3	71,6	64,2	53,1	41,6	31,6	26,7
	26,8	35,2	45,8	57,7	66,8	71,3	69,6	62,2	51,1	39,6	29,6	24,7
	24,8	33,2	43,8	55,7	64,8	69,3	67,5	60,2	49,1	37,6	27,6	22,7
	22,8	31,2	41,8	53,7	62,8	67,3	65,6	58,2	47,1	35,6	25,6	20,7
	20,8	29,2	39,8	51,7	60,8	65,3	63,6	56,2	45,1	33,6	23,6	18,7
	18,8	27,2	37,8	49,7	58,8	63,3	61,6	54,2	43,1	31,6	21,6	16,7
	16,8	25,2	35,8	47,7	56,8	61,3
Boiling point, °С	106,0	110,0	107,5	105,0	113,0
Viscosity, 10 -3 Pa s:
at 5 °C		5,15		6,38
at 20 °С					7,65
at -40 °C	7,75	35,3		28,45
Density, kg / m 3				1077	1483 - 1490
Heat capacity kJ / (m 3 ° С):
at 5 °C	3900	3524
at 20 °C				3340	3486
Corrosivity	strong	Medium	Weak	Weak	strong
Toxicity	Not	Medium	Not	Weak	Not

Notes e. Heat carriers based on potassium carbonate have the following compositions (mass fraction):

Recipe 1 Recipe 2

Potassium carbonate, 1.5-aqueous 51.6 42.9

Sodium phosphate, 12-water 4.3 3.57

Sodium silicate, 9-aqueous 2.6 2.16

Sodium tetraborate, 10-aqueous 2.0 1.66

Fluorescoin 0.01 0.01

Water Up to 100 Up to 100

What are thermal solar collectors used for? Where can they be used - applications, applications, pros and cons of collectors, technical characteristics, efficiency. Is it possible to do it yourself and how justified is it. Schemes of application and prospects.

Purpose

Collector and solar battery two different devices. The battery uses the conversion of solar energy into electrical energy, which is stored in batteries and used for domestic needs. Solar collectors, like a heat pump, are designed to collect and accumulate environmentally friendly solar energy, the conversion of which is used to heat water or heating. AT industrial scale solar panels have been widely used thermal power plants that converts heat into electricity.

Device

Collectors consist of three main parts:

• panels;
• fore-chamber;
• storage tank.

Panels are presented in the form tubular radiator placed in a box with outer wall from glass. They must be placed in any well-lit place. Liquid enters the panel radiator, which then heats up and moves to the fore-chamber, where cold water is replaced by hot water, which creates a constant dynamic pressure in the system. In this case, the cold liquid enters the radiator, and the hot liquid enters the storage tank.

Standard panels are easy to adapt to any conditions. With the help of special mounting profiles, they can be installed parallel to each other in a row in an unlimited number. Holes are drilled in aluminum mounting profiles and fastened to the panels from below with bolts or rivets. After the solar panel is completed, together with mounting profiles are a single rigid structure.

The solar heating system is divided into two groups: air-cooled and fluid-cooled. Collectors capture and absorb radiation, and by converting it into thermal energy, are transferred to the storage element, from which heat is distributed throughout the room. Any of the systems can be supplemented auxiliary equipment(circulation pump, pressure sensors, safety valves).

Principle of operation

AT daytime thermal radiation is transferred to the coolant (water or antifreeze) circulating through the collector. The heated coolant transfers energy to the water heater tank located above it and collecting water for hot water supply. In the simple version, water circulates naturally due to the density difference between hot and cold water in the circuit, and a special pump is used to keep the circulation going. The circulation pump is designed for active pumping of fluid through the structure.


In a more complicated version, the collector is included in a separate circuit filled with water or antifreeze. The pump helps them begin to circulate, while transferring the stored solar energy to a thermally insulated storage tank, which allows you to store heat and take it in case of need. If there is not enough energy, the electric or gas heater provided in the design of the tank automatically turns on and maintains the required temperature.

Kinds

Those who want to have a solar heating system in their home should first decide on the most suitable type collector.

flat type manifold

It is presented in the form of a box, closed with tempered glass, and having a special layer that absorbs solar heat. This layer is connected to tubes through which the coolant circulates. The more energy it receives, the higher its efficiency. Reducing heat loss in the panel itself and ensuring the greatest heat absorption on the absorber plates allows for maximum energy collection. In the absence of stagnation, flat-plate collectors are able to heat water up to 200 °C. They are designed for heating water in swimming pools, domestic needs and home heating.

Vacuum type manifold

It is a glass battery (a series of hollow tubes). The outer battery has a transparent surface, while the inner battery is coated with a special layer that captures radiation. The vacuum layer between the internal and external batteries helps to save about 90% of the absorbed energy. Heat conductors are special tubes. When the panel is heated, the liquid in the lower part of the battery is converted into steam, which rises and transfers heat to the collector. This type of system is more efficient than flat-plate collectors as it can be used with low temperatures oh and in low light conditions. Vacuum solar battery allows heating the coolant temperature up to 300 °C, using a multi-layer glass coating and creating a vacuum in the collectors.

Heat pump

Solar heating systems work most efficiently with a device such as a heat pump. Designed to collect energy from the environment regardless of weather conditions and can be installed inside the house. The source of energy here can be water, air or soil. The heat pump can only be operated using solar collectors if there is enough solar electricity. When using a combined "heat pump and solar collector" system, the type of collector does not matter, but the most suitable option there will be a solar vacuum battery.

What's better

The solar heating system can be installed on any type of roof. Flat-plate collectors are considered more durable and reliable, unlike vacuum ones, the design of which is more fragile. However, if a flat collector is damaged, the entire absorber system will have to be replaced, while with a vacuum collector, only the damaged battery must be replaced.


The efficiency of a vacuum collector is much higher than that of a flat one. They can be used in winter and produce more power in cloudy weather. The heat pump has become quite widespread, despite its high cost. The energy output of vacuum collectors depends on the size of the tubes. Normally, the dimensions of the tubes should be 58 mm in diameter with a length of 1.2-2.1 meters. It is quite difficult to install the collector with your own hands. However, having some knowledge, as well as following the detailed instructions for installation and choosing the location of the system indicated when purchasing the equipment, will greatly simplify the task and help bring solar heating into the house.

2018-08-15

In the USSR, there were several scientific and engineering schools of solar heat supply: Moscow (ENIN, IVTAN, MPEI, etc.), Kyiv (Kyiv ZNIIEPIO, Kyiv Civil Engineering Institute, Institute of Technical Thermal Physics, etc.), Tashkent (Physico-Technical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, Tashkent ZNIIEP), Ashgabat (Solar Energy Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the TSSR), Tbilisi (Spetsgelioteplomontazh). In the 1990s, specialists from Krasnodar, the defense complex (the city of Reutov, Moscow Region and Kovrov), the Institute of Marine Technologies (Vladivostok), Rostovteploelektroproekt, joined these works. The original school of solar installations was created in Ulan-Ude by G.P. Kasatkin.

Solar heating is one of the world's most advanced technologies for converting solar energy for heating, hot water and cooling. In 2016, the total capacity of solar heating systems in the world was 435.9 GW (622.7 million m²). In Russia, solar heating has not yet received wide practical use, which is primarily due to relatively low tariffs for heat and electrical energy. In the same year, according to expert data, only about 25 thousand m² of solar installations were in operation in our country. On fig. 1 shows a photograph of the largest solar plant in Russia in the city of Narimanov, Astrakhan Region, with an area of ​​4400 m².

Taking into account global trends in the development of renewable energy, the development of solar heat supply in Russia requires an understanding of domestic experience. It is interesting to note that the issues of the practical use of solar energy in the USSR at the state level were discussed in 1949 at the First All-Union Conference on solar technology in Moscow. Particular attention was paid to active and passive solar heating systems for buildings.

The project of the active system was developed and implemented in 1920 by the physicist V. A. Mikhelson. In the 1930s, passive solar heating systems were developed by one of the initiators of solar technology, engineer-architect Boris Konstantinovich Bodashko (Leningrad). In the same years, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Boris Petrovich Weinberg (Leningrad) conducted research on solar energy resources on the territory of the USSR and developed theoretical foundations solar installations.

In 1930-1932, K. G. Trofimov (Tashkent city) developed and tested a solar air heater with a heating temperature of up to 225 °C. One of the leaders in the development of solar collectors and solar hot water supply (DHW) was Ph.D. Boris Valentinovich Petukhov. In his book "Tubular Solar Water Heaters" published by him in 1949, he substantiated the feasibility of development and the main Constructive decisions flat solar collectors (SC). Based on ten years of experience (1938-1949) in the construction of solar installations for hot water supply systems, he developed a methodology for their design, construction and operation. Thus, already in the first half of the last century, studies were carried out in our country on all types of solar heating systems, including the potential and methods for calculating solar radiation, liquid and air solar collectors, solar installations for hot water systems, active and passive solar heating systems. .

In most areas, Soviet research and development in the field of solar heating occupied a leading position in the world. However, practical wide application it did not receive in the USSR and developed on its own initiative. So, Ph.D. B. V. Petukhov developed and built dozens of solar installations with SC of his own design at the frontier posts of the USSR.

In the 1980s, following foreign developments initiated by the so-called "global energy crisis", domestic developments in the field of solar energy significantly intensified. The initiator of new developments was the Energy Institute. G. M. Krzhizhanovsky in Moscow (ENIN), who has accumulated experience in this field since 1949.

Chairman State Committee in science and technology, Academician V. A. Kirillin visited a number of European scientific centers that began extensive research and development in the field of renewable energy, and in 1975, in accordance with his instructions, the Institute was connected to work in this direction. high temperatures Academy of Sciences of the USSR in Moscow (now the Joint Institute for High Temperatures, JIHT RAS).

In the 1980s, the Moscow Power Engineering Institute (MPEI), the Moscow Institute of Civil Engineering (MISI) and the All-Union Institute of Light Alloys (VILS, Moscow) also began to engage in research in the field of solar heat supply in the RSFSR in the 1980s.

The development of experimental designs for high power solar power plants was carried out by the Central Research and Design Institute for Experimental Design (TsNII EPIO, Moscow).

The second most important scientific and engineering center for the development of solar heating was Kyiv (Ukraine). The head organization in the Soviet Union for the design of solar installations for housing and communal services by the USSR Gosgrazhdanstroy was the Kyiv Zonal Research and Design Institute (KievZNIIEP). Research in this direction was carried out by the Kyiv Institute of Engineering and Construction, the Institute of Technical Thermal Physics of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, the Institute of Problems of Materials Science of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR and the Kyiv Institute of Electrodynamics.

The third center in the USSR was the city of Tashkent, where the Physico-Technical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR and the Karshi State Pedagogical Institute were engaged in research. The development of projects for solar installations was carried out by the Tashkent Zonal Research and Design Institute of TashZNIIEP. AT Soviet time solar heat supply was handled by the Institute of Solar Energy of the Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR in the city of Ashgabat. In Georgia, studies of solar collectors and solar installations were carried out by the association "Spetsgelioteplomontazh" (Tbilisi) and the Georgian Research Institute of Energy and hydraulic structures.

In the 1990s in Russian Federation Specialists from the city of Krasnodar, the defense complex (JSC VPK NPO Mashinostroeniya, Kovrov Mechanical Plant), the Institute of Marine Technologies (Vladivostok), Rostovteploelektroproekt, as well as the Sochi Institute of Balneology, joined the research and design of solar plants. A brief overview of scientific concepts and engineering developments is presented in the work.

In the USSR, the Energy Institute (ENIN*, Moscow) was the leading scientific organization for solar heat supply ( approx. author: The activities of ENIN in the field of solar heat supply are described in full detail by Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Boris Vladimirovich Tarnizhevsky (1930-2008) in the article “The Solar Circle” from the collection “ENIN. Memoirs of the oldest employees "(2000).), which was organized in 1930 and headed until the 1950s by the leader of the Soviet energy industry, a personal friend of V. I. Lenin - Gleb Maksimilianovich Krzhizhanovsky (1872-1959).

In ENIN, on the initiative of G. M. Krzhizhanovsky, in the 1940s, a laboratory of solar technology was created, which was first led by Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor F. F. Molero, and then for many years (until 1964) Doctor of Technical Sciences ., Professor Valentin Alekseevich Baum (1904-1985), who combined the duties of the head of the laboratory with the work of the deputy director of ENIN.

V. A. Baum instantly grasped the essence of the matter and gave important advice for graduate students on how to continue or complete the work. His students recalled with gratitude the seminars of the laboratory. They were very interesting and really good level. V. A. Baum was a very widely erudite scientist, a man of high culture, great sensitivity and tact. He retained all these qualities to a ripe old age, enjoying the love and respect of his students. High professionalism, scientific approach and decency distinguished this outstanding person. Under his leadership, more than 100 candidate and doctoral dissertations were prepared.

Since 1956, B. V. Tarnizhevsky (1930-2008) has been a post-graduate student of V. A. Baum and a worthy successor to his ideas. High professionalism, scientific approach and decency distinguished this outstanding person. Among dozens of his students is the author of this article. B.V. Tarnizhevsky worked in ENIN for 39 years until the last days of his life. In 1962, he went to work at the All-Russian Research Institute of Current Sources, located in Moscow, and then returned to ENIN again 13 years later.

In 1964, after V. A. Baum was elected a full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR, he left for Ashgabat, where he headed the Institute of Physics and Technology. Yury Nikolaevich Malevsky (1932-1980) became his successor as head of the laboratory of solar technology. In the 1970s, he put forward the idea of ​​creating in the Soviet Union an experimental tower-type solar power plant with a capacity of 5 MW with a thermodynamic conversion cycle (SES-5, located in the Crimea) and led a large-scale team of 15 organizations for its development and construction.

Another idea of ​​Yu. N. Malevsky was to create on the southern coast of Crimea an integrated experimental base for solar heat and cold supply, which would simultaneously be a fairly large demonstration object and a center for research in this area. To solve this problem, BV Tarnizhevsky returned in 1976 to ENIN. At that time, the solar technology laboratory employed 70 people. In 1980, after the death of Yu. B. V. Tarnizhevsky, who was engaged in the creation of the Crimean base for heat and cold supply. I. V. Baum, before joining ENIN, headed the laboratory at the NPO Solntse of the Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR (1973-1983) in Ashgabat.

In ENIN, I. V. Baum was in charge of the SES laboratory. In the period from 1983 to 1987, he did a lot to create the first thermodynamic solar power plant in the USSR. In the 1980s, work on the use of renewable energy sources and, first of all, solar energy reached the greatest development at the institute. In 1987, the construction of the Crimean experimental base in the Alushta region was completed. A special laboratory was created for its operation on site.

In the 1980s, the solar heat supply laboratory participated in the introduction of solar collectors into mass industrial production, the creation of solar and hot water supply installations, including large ones with an SC area of ​​more than 1000 m², and other large-scale projects.

As B. V. Tarnizhevsky recalled, in the field of solar heat supply in the 1980s, the activity of Sergei Iosifovich Smirnov was indispensable, who participated in the creation of the country's first solar-fuel boiler house for one of the hotels in Simferopol, a number of other solar installations, in the development of calculated methodologies for designing solar heating installations. S. I. Smirnov was a very conspicuous and popular person at the institute.

A powerful intellect, combined with kindness and some impulsiveness of character, created the unique charm of this person. Yu. L. Myshko, B. M. Levinsky and other collaborators worked with him in his group. The group for the development of selective coatings, headed by Galina Alexandrovna Gukhman, developed a technology for the chemical deposition of selective absorbing coatings on absorbers of solar collectors, as well as a technology for deposition of a heat-resistant selective coating on tubular receivers of concentrated solar radiation.

In the early 1990s, the Solar Heat Supply Laboratory provided scientific and organizational management for a project on new generation solar collectors, which was part of the Environmentally Friendly Energy Program. By 1993-1994, as a result of the research and development work carried out, it was possible to create designs and organize the production of solar collectors that are not inferior to foreign counterparts in terms of thermal and operational characteristics.

Under the leadership of B. V. Tarnizhevsky, the project GOST 28310-89 “Solar Collectors. General technical conditions". To optimize the designs of flat solar collectors (PSC), Boris Vladimirovich proposed a generalized criterion: the quotient of dividing the cost of the collector by the amount of thermal energy generated by it over the estimated service life .

In the last years of the USSR, under the guidance of Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor B.V. Tarnizhevsky, the designs and technologies of eight solar collectors were developed: one with a panel absorber made of stainless steel, two with absorbers made of aluminum alloys, three with absorbers and transparent insulation made of polymer materials, two designs of air collectors. Technologies for growing a sheet-pipe aluminum profile from a melt, a technology for manufacturing reinforced glass, and applying a selective coating were developed.

The design of the solar collector, developed by ENIN, was mass-produced by the Bratsk Heating Equipment Plant. The absorber is a stamp-welded steel panel with a black chrome selective galvanic coating. The body is stamped (trough) - steel, glass - window glass, glass seal - special mastic (gerlen). Annually (according to 1989 data), the plant produced 42.3 thousand m² of collectors.

B. V. Tarnizhevsky developed methods for calculating active and passive heat supply systems for buildings. From 1990 to 2000, 26 different solar collectors were tested at the ENIN stand, including all those produced in the USSR and Russia.

In 1975, the Institute for High Temperatures of the Academy of Sciences (IVTAN) joined the work in the field of renewable energy under the leadership of Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Ewald Emilievich Shpilrain (1926-2009). IVTANA's work on renewable energy is described in detail by Dr. O.S. Popel in the article “JIHT RAS. Results and Prospects” from the anniversary collection of articles of the institute in 2010. In a short time, together with design organizations, conceptual projects of "solar" houses for the south of the country were developed and justified, methods for mathematical modeling of solar heat supply systems were developed, and the design of the first in Russia scientific test site "Solntse" on the shore of the Caspian Sea near the city of Makhachkala was started.

At the ICT RAS, first a scientific group was created, and then a laboratory under the leadership of Oleg Sergeevich Popel, in which, together with the staff of the Special Design Bureau of the ICT RAS, along with ensuring coordination and theoretical justification of the developed projects, research was started in the field of creating electrochemical optical selective coatings for solar collectors, the development of so-called "solar ponds", solar heating systems in combination with heat pumps, solar dryers, work was carried out in other areas.

One of the first practical results of the ICT RAS team was the construction of a "solar house" in the village of Merdzavan in the Echmiadzin region of Armenia. This house became the first experimental energy-efficient "solar house" in the USSR, equipped with the necessary experimental diagnostic equipment, on which the chief designer of the project, M. S. Kalashyan from the Institute "Armgiproselkhoz", with the participation of employees of the ICT RAS, conducted a six-year cycle of year-round experimental studies that showed the possibility of practically 100% provision of the house with hot water and covering the heating load at a level of more than 50%.

Another important practical result was the introduction at the Bratsk plant of heating equipment developed at ICT RAS by M. D. Fridberg (together with specialists from the Moscow Evening Metallurgical Institute) of the technology for applying electrochemical selective coatings "black chrome" on steel panels of flat solar collectors, the production of which was mastered at this factory.

In the mid-1980s, the ICT RAS test site "Sun" was put into operation in Dagestan. Located on an area of ​​about 12 hectares, the landfill included, along with laboratory buildings, a group of "solar houses" various types equipped with solar collectors and heat pumps. One of the world's largest (at that time) simulators of solar radiation was launched at the test site. The source of radiation was a powerful xenon lamp with a power of 70 kW, equipped with special optical filters that make it possible to adjust the radiation spectrum from the atmospheric (AM0) to the ground (AM1.5). The creation of a simulator made it possible to conduct accelerated durability tests various materials and paints to the effects of solar radiation, as well as testing large-scale solar collectors and photovoltaic modules.

Unfortunately, in the 1990s, due to a sharp reduction in budgetary funding for research and development, most of the projects started by ICT RAS in the Russian Federation had to be frozen. To maintain the direction of work in the field of renewable energy, research and development of the laboratory were reoriented to scientific cooperation with leading foreign centers. Projects were carried out under the INTAS and TASIS programs, the European Framework Program in the field of energy saving, heat pumps and solar adsorption refrigeration units which, on the other hand, made it possible to develop scientific competencies in related fields of science and technology, to master and use modern methods of dynamic modeling of power plants in various energy applications (Ph.D. S. E. Frid).

On the initiative and under the leadership of O. S. Popel, together with Moscow State University (Ph.D. S. V. Kiseleva), the Atlas of solar energy resources on the territory of the Russian Federation was developed, the Geographic Information System "Renewable Energy Sources of Russia" was created » (gisre.ru). Together with the institute "Rostovteploelektroproekt" (Ph.D. A.A. Chernyavsky), solar plants with solar collectors of the Kovrov Mechanical Plant were developed, built and tested for heating and hot water systems at the objects of the Special Astrophysical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Karachay-Cherkessia. The JIHT RAS has created the only specialized thermal-hydraulic stand in Russia for full-scale thermal testing of solar collectors and solar installations in accordance with Russian and foreign standards, recommendations have been developed for the use of solar installations in various regions of the Russian Federation. More details on some of the results of research and development of the JIHT RAS in the field of RES can be found in the book by O. S. Popel and V. E. Fortov "Renewable Energy in the Modern World" .

At the Moscow Power Engineering Institute (MPEI), Dr.Sc. V. I. Vissarionov, Doctor of Technical Sciences B. I. Kazandzhan and Ph.D. M. I. Valov.

V. I. Vissarionov (1939-2014) headed the Department of Non-traditional Renewable Energy Sources (in 1988-2004). Under his leadership, work was carried out on the calculation of solar energy resources, the development of solar heat supply. In 1983-1987, M. I. Valov, together with MPEI employees, published a number of articles on the study of solar installations. One of the most informative books is the work of M. I. Valov and B. I. Kazandzhan "Systems of solar heat supply", which investigated the issues of low-potential solar installations ( circuit diagrams, climatic data, SC characteristics, flat SC designs), calculation of energy characteristics, cost-effectiveness of using solar heating systems. Doctor of technical sciences B. I. Kazandzhan developed the design and mastered the production of a flat solar collector "Alten". A feature of this collector is that the absorber is made of an aluminum fin profile, inside of which a copper tube is pressed, and cellular polycarbonate is used as a transparent insulation.

An employee of the Moscow Engineering and Construction Institute (MISI) Ph.D. S. G. Bulkin developed thermoneutral solar collectors (absorbers without transparent insulation and thermal insulation of the body). A feature of the work was the supply of a coolant to them 3-5 ° C below the ambient temperature and the possibility of using the latent heat of moisture condensation and frost formation of atmospheric air (solar absorption panels). The heat carrier heated in these panels was heated up by a heat pump ("air-to-water"). A test bench with thermoneutral solar collectors and several solar installations in Moldova were built at MISI.

The All-Union Institute of Light Alloys (VILS) developed and produced SC with a stamp-welded aluminum absorber, jellied polyurethane foam thermal insulation of the body. Since 1991, the production of SC has been transferred to the Baku Plant for the Processing of Non-Ferrous Metal Alloys. In VILS, in 1981, Guidelines for the design of energy-active buildings were developed. In them, for the first time in the USSR, the absorber was integrated into the structure of the building, which improved the economics of using solar energy. The leaders of this direction were Ph.D. N. P. Selivanov and Ph.D. V. N. SMIRNOV

The Central Research Institute of Engineering Equipment (TsNII EPIO) in Moscow developed a project, according to which a solar-fuel boiler house with a capacity of 3.7 MW was built in Ashgabat, a project was developed for a solar-heat pump installation at the Friendly Beach hotel in the city of Gelendzhik with an area of ​​SK 690 m². Three are used as heat pumps. refrigeration machines MKT 220-2-0 operating in heat pump mode using heat sea ​​water.

The leading organization in the USSR for the design of solar installations was the KievZNIIEP Institute, which developed 20 standard and reusable projects: a free-standing solar hot water supply unit with natural circulation for an individual residential building; unified installation of solar hot water supply public buildings productivity 5, 7, 15, 25, 30, 70 m³/day; nodes, parts and equipment of residential and public buildings of mass construction; installations of solar hot water supply of seasonal action with a productivity of 2.5; ten; thirty; 40; 50 m³/day; technical solutions and guidelines for the conversion of heating boilers into solar-fuel installations.

Dozens of experimental projects have been developed by this institute, including solar hot water supply systems for swimming pools, solar heat pump installation for hot water supply. According to the project of KievZNIIEP, the largest solar power plant in the Kastropol boarding house (the village of Beregovoye, South Coast) in the Crimea with an area of ​​1600 m² was built. At the pilot plant of the KievZNIIEP institute, solar collectors were produced, the absorbers of which are made of serpentine fin aluminum tubes own production.

The theorists of solar technology in Ukraine were Doctor of Technical Sciences. Mikhail Davidovich Rabinovich (born 1948), Ph.D. Alexey Ruvimovich Fert, Ph.D. Victor Fedorovich Gershkovich (1934-2013). They were the main developers of the Solar Hot Water Design Code and Design Guidelines. M. D. Rabinovich was engaged in the study of solar radiation, the hydraulic characteristics of SC, solar plants with natural circulation, solar heating systems, solar fuel boilers, high power solar plants, solar systems. A. R. Fert developed the design of the simulator and carried out tests of the SC, investigated the regulation of hydraulic solar installations, increasing the efficiency of solar installations. At the Kiev Engineering and Construction Institute, Ph.D. Nikolay Vasilievich Kharchenko. He formulated a systematic approach to the development of solar heat pump heat supply systems, proposed criteria for assessing their energy efficiency, investigated the issues of optimizing a solar heat supply system, and compared various methods for calculating solar systems. One of his most comprehensive books on small (individual) solar solar installations is accessible and informative. At the Kiev Institute of Electrodynamics, Ph.D. A. N. Stronsky and Ph.D. A. V. Suprun. Above mathematical modeling solar installations in Kyiv also worked Ph.D. V. A. Nikiforov.

The leader of the scientific engineering school of solar technology in Uzbekistan (Tashkent) is Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Rabbanakul Rakhmanovich Avezov (born in 1942). In 1966-1967, he worked at the Ashgabat Physical-Technical Institute of Turkmenistan under the guidance of Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor V. A. Baum. R. R. Avezov develops the ideas of a teacher at the Physico-Technical Institute of Uzbekistan, which has become an international research center.

R. R. Avezov formulated the scientific directions of research in his doctoral dissertation (1990, ENIN, Moscow), and its results are summarized in the monograph "Solar systems of heating and hot water supply". He develops, among other things, methods for the exergy analysis of flat solar collectors, the creation of active and passive solar heating systems. Doctor of technical sciences R. R. Avezov provided great prestige and international recognition to the only specialized magazine in the USSR and in the CIS countries Applied Solar Energy (“Heliotechnics”), which is published in English. His daughter Nilufar Rabbakumovna Avezova (born 1972) is Doctor of Technical Sciences, General Director of the NPO "Physics-Sun" of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan.

Ph.D. Yusuf Karimovich Rashidov (born 1954). The Institute "TashZNIIEP" developed ten standard projects of residential buildings, helioshowers, a project for a solar-fuel boiler house, including solar plants with a capacity of 500 and 100 l / day, helioshowers for two and four cabins. From 1984 to 1986, 1200 typical projects of solar plants were implemented.

In the Tashkent region (Ilyichevsk village), a semi-detached solar house with heating and hot water supply with a solar installation with an area of ​​56 m² was built. At the Karshi State Pedagogical Institute A.T. Teimurkhanov, A.B. Vardiyashvili and others were engaged in research of flat solar collectors.

The Turkmen Scientific School of Solar Heat Supply was created by Doctor of Technical Sciences. V. A. Baum, elected in 1964 as an academician of the republic. At the Ashgabat Institute of Physics and Technology, he organized a department of solar energy and until 1980 led the entire institute. In 1979, on the basis of the Department of Solar Energy, the Institute of Solar Energy of Turkmenistan was established, which was headed by a student of V.A. Baum - Doctor of Technical Sciences. Rejep Bayramovich Bayramov (1933-2017). In the suburbs of Ashgabat (village of Bikrova), a scientific testing ground of the institute was built, consisting of laboratories, test benches, a design bureau, workshops with a staff of 70 people. V. A. Baum until the end of his life (1985) worked at this institute. R. B. Bayramov together with Doctor of Technical Sciences. Ushakova Alda Danilovna researched flat solar collectors, solar heating systems and solar desalination plants. It is noteworthy that in 2014, the Institute of Solar Energy of Turkmenistan, NPO GUN, was recreated in Ashgabat.

In the design and production association "Spetsgelioteplomontazh" (Tbilisi) and the Georgian Research Institute of Energy and Hydraulic Structures under the direction of Doctor of Technical Sciences. Nugzar Varlamovich Meladze (born 1937) developed designs and mastered the serial production of solar collectors, individual hot water solar plants, solar installations and solar heat pump systems. The payback conditions for the construction of solar installations in various regions of Georgia were determined, various designs of solar collectors were tested on a test bench in natural conditions.

The solar collectors of Spetsgelioteplomontazh had an optimal design for their time: a stamp-welded steel absorber with a paint and varnish coating, a body made of aluminum profiles and galvanized steel, window glass, thermal insulation - from foam plastic and foil roofing material.

According to N.V. Meladze, in the Caucasus region alone, by 1990, 46.9 thousand m² of solar collectors were installed, including 42.7% in sanatoriums and hotels, 39.2% in industrial solar installations, agricultural facilities - 13.8%, sports facilities - 3.6%, individual installations - 0.7%.

According to the author, in Krasnodar Territory in 1988-1992, 4620 m² of solar collectors of Spetsgeliomontazh were installed. The work of the SGTM was carried out in cooperation with scientists from the Georgian Research Institute of Energy and Hydraulic Structures (GRUNIIEGS).

Institute "TbilZNIIEP" developed five typical projects of solar installations (SP), as well as a project for a solar heat pump installation. SGTM included a laboratory in which solar collectors and heat pumps were studied. Steel, aluminum, plastic liquid absorbers, air SCs with and without glass, SCs with concentrators, and various designs of individual thermosyphon GUs were developed. As of January 1, 1989, Spetsgeliomontazh built 261 GUs with a total area of ​​46 thousand m² and 85 individual solar installations for hot water systems with an area of ​​339 m².

On fig. Figure 2 shows a solar plant on Rashpilevskaya Street in Krasnodar, which has been successfully operating for 15 years with collectors from Spetsgelioteplomontazh (320 units with a total area of ​​260 m²).

The development of solar heat supply in the USSR and in Russia was handled by the authorities by Doctor of Technical Sciences. Pavel Pavlovich Bezrukikh (born 1936). In 1986-1992, as the chief specialist of the Bureau of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for the fuel and energy complex, he oversaw the mass production of solar collectors at the brotherly plant of heating equipment, in Tbilisi, in the Spetsgelioteplomontazh association at the Baku plant for the processing of non-ferrous alloys. On his initiative and with direct participation, the first renewable energy development program in the USSR for 1987-1990 was developed.

Since 1990, P.P. Bezrukikh has taken an active part in the development and implementation of the “Non-traditional Energy” section of the State Scientific and Technical Program “Environmentally Safe Energy”. He notes the main role of the scientific director of the program, Dr. E. E. Shpilrain to engage leading scientists and specialists of the USSR in renewable energy. From 1992 to 2004, P. P. Bezrukikh, working in the Ministry of Fuel and Energy of Russia and heading the department, and then the department of scientific and technological progress, led the organization of the production of solar collectors at the Kovrov Mechanical Plant, NPO Mashinostroyeniye (Reutov, Moscow Region) , a complex of scientific and technical developments on solar heat supply, the implementation of the Concept for the development and use of the possibilities of small and non-traditional energy in Russia. Participated in the development of the first Russian standard GOST R 51595-2000 “Solar Collectors. General technical conditions” and resolving disagreements between the author of the GOST R project, Doctor of Technical Sciences. B. V. Tarnizhevsky and the chief designer of the manufacturer of collectors (Kovrov Mechanical Plant) A. A. Lychagin.

In 2004-2013 at the Institute of Energy Strategy (Moscow), and then as head of the department of energy saving and renewable sources of ENIN, P.P. Bezrukikh continues to develop, including solar heat supply.

In the Krasnodar Territory, work on the design and construction of solar installations was started by the heat power engineer V. A. Butuzov (born in 1949), who led the prospective development of heat supply for the production association “Kubanteplokommunenergo”. From 1980 to 1986, projects were developed and six solar-fuel boiler houses with a total area of ​​1532 m² were built. Over the years, constructive relations have been established with SC manufacturers: the Bratsk Plant, Spetsgelioteplomontazh, KievZNIIEP. Due to the lack of data on solar radiation in Soviet climatological reference books in 1986, from 1977 to 1986 reliable results were obtained from the meteorological stations of Krasnodar and Gelendzhik for the design of solar installations.

After defending his Ph.D. thesis in 1990, work on the development of solar technology was continued by the Krasnodar Laboratory of Energy Saving and Non-traditional Energy Sources organized by V. A. Butuzov of the Academy of Public Utilities (Moscow). Several designs of flat SCs and a stand for their full-scale tests were developed and improved. As a result of the generalization of experience in the design and construction of solar installations, " General requirements to the design of solar installations and central heating in public utilities”.

Based on the analysis of the results of processing the values ​​of total solar radiation for the conditions of Krasnodar for 14 years, and Gelendzhik for 15 years, in 2004 a new method was proposed for providing monthly values ​​of total solar radiation with determining their maximum and minimum values, the probability of their observation. Calculated monthly and annual values ​​of total, direct and scattered solar radiation for 54 cities and administrative centers of the Krasnodar Territory were determined. It has been established that for an objective comparison of SCs from different manufacturers, in addition to comparing their costs and energy characteristics obtained by the standard method on certified test benches, it is necessary to take into account the energy costs for their manufacture and operation. The optimal cost of the SC design is determined in the general case by the ratio of the cost of generated thermal energy and the cost of manufacturing and operation for the estimated service life. Together with the Kovrov Mechanical Plant, a design of the SC was developed and mass-produced, which had an optimal ratio of cost and energy costs for the Russian market. Projects have been developed and construction of standard hot water solar plants with a daily capacity of 200 l to 10 m³ has been carried out. Since 1994, work on solar installations has been continued at JSC "South Russian Energy Company". From 1987 to 2003, the development and construction of 42 solar plants was completed, and the design of 20 solar plants was completed. The results of V.A. Butuzov were summarized in a doctoral dissertation defended at ENIN (Moscow).

From 2006 to 2010 LLC "Teploproektstroy" developed and built solar plants for boiler houses low power, when installed in which SC in the summer, the operating personnel is reduced, which reduces the payback period of solar installations. During these years, self-draining solar plants were developed and built, when the pumps are stopped, water is drained from the SC into the tanks, preventing overheating of the coolant. In 2011, a design was created, prototypes of flat SCs were made, a test bench was developed to organize the production of SCs in Ulyanovsk. From 2009 to 2013 JSC "Yuzhgeoteplo" (Krasnodar) developed the project and built the largest solar plant in the Krasnodar Territory with an area of ​​600 m² in the city of Ust-Labinsk (Fig. 3). At the same time, studies were carried out to optimize the layout of the SC, taking into account shading, automation of work, and circuit solutions. A geothermal solar heating system with an area of ​​144 m² was developed and built in the village of Rozovy, Krasnodar Territory. In 2014, a methodology was developed for assessing the economic payback of solar installations depending on the intensity of solar radiation, the efficiency of a solar installation, and the unit cost of replaced thermal energy.

The long-term creative collaboration of V. A. Butuzov with Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor of the Kuban State Agrarian University Robert Aleksandrovich Amerkhanov (born in 1948) was implemented in the development of the theoretical foundations for the creation of high-power solar installations and combined geothermal-solar heat supply systems. Dozens of candidates of technical sciences have been trained under his leadership, including in the field of solar heating. Numerous monographs by R. A. Amerkhanov dealt with the design of solar plants for agricultural purposes.

The most experienced specialist in the design of solar installations is the chief project engineer of the Rostovteploelektroproekt Institute, Ph.D. Adolf Alexandrovich Chernyavsky (born 1936). He has been active in this area for more than 30 years. He has developed dozens of projects, many of which have been implemented in Russia and other countries. The unique systems of solar heating and hot water supply are described in the section of the JIHT RAS Institute. The projects of A. A. Chernyavsky are distinguished by the elaboration of all sections, including a detailed economic justification. Based on the solar collectors of the Kovrov Mechanical Plant, "Recommendations for the design of solar heat supply stations" were developed.

Under the leadership of A. A. Chernyavsky, unique projects of photovoltaic stations with thermal collectors were created in the city of Kislovodsk (6.2 MW electric, 7 MW thermal), as well as a station in Kalmykia with a total installed capacity of 150 MW. Completed unique projects of thermodynamic solar power plants with an installed electric capacity of 30 MW in Uzbekistan, 5 MW in Rostov region; implemented projects for solar installations in boarding houses on the Black Sea coast with an area of ​​40-50 m² for solar heating and hot water systems for objects of a special astrophysical observatory in Karachay-Cherkessia. The Rostovteploelektroproekt institute is characterized by the scale of developments - solar heating stations for residential towns and cities. The main results of the developments of this institute, carried out jointly with the JIHT RAS, are published in the book Autonomous Power Supply Systems.

The development of solar installations at Sochi State University (Institute of Resort Business and Tourism) was led by Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Pavel Vasilievich Sadilov, Head of the Department of Engineering Ecology. An initiator of renewable energy, he developed and built several solar installations, including in 1997 in the village of Lazarevsky (Sochi) with an area of ​​400 m², a solar installation of the Institute of Balneology, several heat pump installations.

At the Institute of Marine Technologies of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Vladivostok), Ph.D. Alexander Vasilyevich Volkov, who tragically died in 2014, developed and built dozens of solar plants with a total area of ​​2000 m², a stand for full-scale comparative tests of solar collectors, new designs of flat solar cells, and tested the efficiency of vacuum solar cells from Chinese manufacturers.

The outstanding designer and man Adolf Alexandrovich Lychagin (1933-2012) was the author of several types of unique anti-aircraft guided missiles, including Strela-10M. In the 1980s, he, in the position of chief designer (on his own initiative) at the military Kovrov Mechanical Plant (KMZ), developed solar collectors that were distinguished by high reliability, an optimal ratio of price and energy efficiency. He was able to convince the management of the plant to master the mass production of solar collectors, and create a factory laboratory for testing SC. From 1991 to 2011, KMZ produced about 3,000 pieces. solar collectors, each of the three modifications of which was distinguished by new performance characteristics. Guided by the "power price" of the collector, in which the costs of different designs of the SC are compared with the same solar radiation, A. A. Lychagin created a collector with an absorber made of a brass tubular grid with steel absorbing ribs. Air solar collectors have been designed and manufactured. The highest engineering qualifications and intuition were combined in Adolf Alexandrovich with patriotism, the desire to develop environmentally friendly technologies, adherence to principles, and high artistic taste. Having suffered two heart attacks, he was able to come to Madrid specially for a thousand kilometers in order to study magnificent paintings in the Prado Museum for two days.

JSC VPK NPO Mashinostroeniya (Reutov, Moscow Region) has been manufacturing solar collectors since 1993. The development of designs for collectors and solar water heating installations at the enterprise is carried out by the design department of the Central Design Bureau of Mechanical Engineering. Project Manager - Ph.D. Nikolay Vladimirovich Dudarev. In the first designs of solar collectors, the housings and stamp-welded absorbers were made of stainless steel. On the basis of a 1.2 m² collector, the company developed and manufactured solar thermosyphon water heating systems with tanks with a capacity of 80 and 120 liters. In 1994, the technology for obtaining a selective absorbing coating by the method of vacuum electric arc deposition was developed and introduced into production, in 1999 it was supplemented by the magnetron method of vacuum deposition. On the basis of this technology, the production of solar collectors of the Sokol type was started. The absorber and collector housing were made of aluminum profiles. Now NPO produces solar collectors "Sokol-Effect" with sheet-pipe copper and aluminum absorbers. The only Russian solar collector is certified according to European standards by the SPF Institute from Rappersville in Switzerland (Institut für Solartechnik Hochschule für Technik Rappelswill).

Scientific and production enterprise "Competitor" (since 2000 - "Rainbow-C", the city of Zhukovsky, Moscow region) since 1992 produced solar collectors "Rainbow". Chief designer - Vyacheslav Alekseevich Shershnev.

The stamp-welded absorber was made of stainless steel sheet. Absorber coating - selective PVD or black matte heat-resistant paint. Annual NPP program up to 4000 pcs. The energy characteristics of the collector were obtained during testing at ENIN. A thermosiphon solar plant "Raduga-2M" was also produced, consisting of two SCs of 1 m² each and a tank with a capacity of 200 liters. The tank contained a flat heating panel, into which the coolant from the SC was supplied, as well as a backup electric heater with a power of 1.6 kW.

Novy Polyus LLC (Moscow) is the second Russian manufacturer that has developed its own designs and currently produces flat liquid, flat air, flat air-liquid, tubular vacuum solar collectors, designs and installs solar installations. General Director - Alexey Viktorovich Skorobatyuk.

Four models of flat-panel liquid collectors of the YaSolar type are offered. All liquid absorbers of this manufacturer are made of selective Tinox-coated copper sheet and copper tubes. The connection of the tubes with the sheet is soldered with rolling. OOO Novy Polyus also offers three types of vacuum tube SCs of its own manufacture with copper absorbers with U-shaped tubes.

An outstanding specialist, an energetic and highly intelligent person Gennady Pavlovich Kasatkin (born 1941), a mining engineer and designer with many years of experience, started working in solar engineering in 1999 in the city of Ulan-Ude (Buryatia). In the Center for Energy Efficient Technologies (CEFT) organized by him, several designs of liquid and air collectors were developed, about 100 solar plants of various types with a total area of ​​4200 m² were built. On the basis of his calculations, prototypes were made, which, after tests in natural conditions, were replicated at solar plants in the Republic of Buryatia.

Engineer G.P. Kasatkin developed several new technologies: welding of plastic absorbers, manufacturing of collector cases.

The only one in Russia, he designed and built several solar air plants with collectors of his own design. Chronologically, its development of solar collectors began in 1990 with welded sheet-tube steel absorbers. Then came variants of copper and plastic collectors with welded and crimped absorbers, and finally modern designs with European selective copper sheets and tubes. GP Kasatkin, developing the concept of energy-active buildings, built a solar plant, the collectors of which are integrated into the roof of the building. In recent years, the engineer has transferred leadership functions in CEFT to his son I. G. Kasatkin, who successfully continues the traditions of CEFT LLC.

On fig. 4 shows the solar installation of the Baikal Hotel in the city of Ulan-Ude with an area of ​​150 m².

findings

1. Calculated solar radiation data for the design of solar plants in the USSR were based on various methods for processing arrays of meteorological station measurements. In the Russian Federation, these methods are supplemented by materials from international satellite computer databases.

2. The leading school for the design of solar installations in the Soviet Union was the KievZNIIEP Institute, which developed guidelines and dozens of projects. Currently, there are no relevant Russian norms and recommendations. Projects of solar installations at the modern level are carried out at the Russian Institute "Rostovteploelektroproekt" (Ph.D. A.A. Chernyavsky) and in the company LLC "EnergotekhnologiiService" (Ph.D. V.V. Butuzov, Krasnodar).

3. Technical and economic studies of solar installations in the USSR were carried out by ENIN (Moscow), KievZNIIEP, TsNIIEPIO (Moscow). Currently, these works are being carried out at the Rostovteploelektroproekt Institute and at the Energotekhnologii-Service LLC company.

4. The leading scientific organization of the USSR for the study of solar collectors was the Energy Institute named after GM Krzhizhanovsky (Moscow). The best collector design for its time was produced by Spetsgeliotepomontazh (Tbilisi). Of the Russian manufacturers, Kovrov Mechanical Plant produced solar collectors with an optimal ratio of price and energy efficiency. Modern Russian manufacturers assemble collectors from foreign components.

5. In the USSR, the design, manufacture of solar collectors, installation and commissioning were carried out by the Spetsgelioteplomontazh company. Until 2010, CEFT LLC (Ulan-Ude) worked according to this scheme.

6. An analysis of domestic and foreign experience in solar heat supply showed undoubted prospects for its development in Russia, as well as the need state support. Among the priority measures: the creation of a Russian analogue of a computer database of solar radiation; development of new designs of solar collectors with an optimal ratio of price and energy efficiency, new energy-efficient design solutions adapted to Russian conditions.

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With the rise in energy prices, the use of alternative energy sources is becoming increasingly important. And since heating is the main item of expenditure for many, we are talking about heating in the first place: you have to pay practically all year round and considerable sums. If you want to save money, the first thing that comes to mind is solar heat: a powerful and completely free source of energy. And it is quite realistic to use it. Moreover, the equipment is expensive, but many times cheaper than heat pumps. Let's talk more about how solar energy can be used to heat a house.

Heating from the sun: pros and cons

If we talk about using solar energy for heating, then you need to keep in mind that there are two different devices for converting solar energy:

Both options have their own characteristics. Although you must immediately say whichever one you choose, do not rush to abandon the heating system that you have. The sun rises, of course, every morning, but your solar cells will not always get enough light. The most reasonable solution is to make a combined system. When there is enough solar energy, the second heat source will not work. By doing this, you will protect yourself, and you will live in comfortable conditions, and save money.

If there is no desire or opportunity to install two systems, your solar heating should have at least twice the power reserve. Then you can definitely say that you will have warmth in any case.

Advantages of using solar energy for heating:

Disadvantages:

• The dependence of the amount of incoming heat on the weather and region.
• For guaranteed heating, you will need a system that can work in parallel with the solar heating system. Many manufacturers of heating equipment provide for this possibility. In particular, European manufacturers of wall-mounted gas boilers provide for joint operation with solar heating (for example, Baxi boilers). Even if you have installed equipment that does not have this capability, you can coordinate the operation of the heating system using the controller.
• Solid financial investments at the start.
• Periodic maintenance: tubes and panels must be cleaned of adhering debris and washed from dust.
• Some of the liquid solar collectors cannot operate at very low temperatures. In anticipation of severe frosts, the liquid has to be drained. But this does not apply to all models and not all liquids.

Now let's take a closer look at each of the types of solar heating elements.

Solar collectors

Solar collectors are used for solar heating. These installations use the heat of the sun to heat the heat transfer fluid, which can then be used in a hot water heating system. The specificity is that a solar water heater for heating a house produces only a temperature of 45-60 ° C, and shows the highest efficiency at 35 ° C at the outlet. Therefore, such systems are recommended for use in tandem with warm water floors. If you don’t want to give up radiators, either increase the number of sections (approximately two times) or heat up the coolant.

To secure a home warm water and for water heating you can use solar collectors (flat and tubular)

Now about the types of solar collectors. Structurally, there are two modifications:

• flat;
• tubular.

In each of the groups there are variations both in materials and in design, but they have the same principle of operation: a coolant runs through the tubes, which is heated by the sun. It's just that the designs are completely different.

Flat solar collectors

These solar heating systems have a simple design and therefore it is they that can be made by hand if desired. A solid bottom is fixed on a metal frame. A layer of thermal insulation is laid on top. Insulated to reduce losses and the walls of the case. Then comes a layer of adsorber - a material that absorbs solar radiation well, turning it into heat. This layer is usually black. Pipes are fixed on the adsorber, through which the coolant flows. From above, this whole structure is closed with a transparent lid. The material for the cover can be tempered glass or one of the plastics (most often it is polycarbonate). In some models, the light-transmitting material of the cover can undergo a special treatment: to reduce the reflectivity, it is made not smooth, but slightly matte.

Pipes in a flat solar collector are usually laid in a snake, there are two holes - inlet and outlet. One-pipe and two-pipe connection can be realized. This is how you like it. But for normal heat transfer, a pump is needed. A gravity system is also possible, but it will be very inefficient due to the low speed of the coolant. It is this type of solar collector that is used for heating, although it can be used to effectively heat water for domestic hot water.

There is a variant of a gravity collector, but it is used mainly for heating water. This design is also called a plastic solar collector. These are two plates of transparent plastic, hermetically fixed to the case. Inside, a labyrinth is arranged to move water. Sometimes the bottom panel is painted black. There are two holes - inlet and outlet. Water is supplied inside, as it moves through the labyrinth, it is heated by the sun, and it comes out already warm. Such a scheme works well with a water tank and easily heats water for domestic hot water. This is a modern replacement for a conventional barrel mounted on summer shower. And a more efficient replacement.

How efficient are solar collectors? Among all domestic solar installations today, they show top scores: their efficiency is 72-75%. But not everything is so good:

• they do not work at night and do not work well in cloudy weather;
• large heat losses, especially with wind;
• low maintainability: if something fails, then you need to change a significant part, or the entire panel.

Nevertheless, often the heating of a private house from the sun is done with the help of these solar installations. Such installations are popular in southern countries with active radiation and positive temperatures in winter. They are not suitable for our winters, but in summer season show good results.

Air manifold

This unit can be used for home air heating. Structurally, it is very similar to the plastic collector described above, but the air circulates and heats up in it. Such devices are hung on the walls. They can act in two ways: if the solar air heater is airtight, air is taken from the room, heated and returned to the same room.

There is another option. It combines heating with ventilation. There are holes in the outer housing of the air manifold. Through them, cold air enters the structure. Passing through the labyrinth, it heats up from the sun's rays, and then warmed up, it enters the room.

Such heating of the house will be more or less effective if the installation occupies the entire south wall, and there will be no shadow on this wall.

Tubular collectors

Here, too, the coolant circulates through the pipes, but each of these heat exchange pipes is inserted into a glass flask. All of them are connected in a manifold (manifold), which, in fact, is a comb.

Scheme of a tubular collector (click to enlarge the image)

Tubular collectors have two types of tubes: coaxial and feather. Coaxial - a pipe in a pipe - are nested one inside the other and their edges are sealed. Inside, a rarefied airless environment is created between the two walls. Therefore, such tubes are also called vacuum tubes. Feather tubes are a regular tube sealed on one side. And they are called feather because to increase heat transfer, an absorber plate is inserted into them, which has curved edges and is somewhat reminiscent of a feather.

In addition, different types of heat exchangers can be inserted into different housings. The first are Heat-pipe thermal channels (Hit pipe). This is a whole system of converting sunlight into thermal energy. A heat-pipe is a small diameter hollow copper tube soldered at one end. On the second is a massive tip. The tube is filled with a substance with a low boiling point. When heated, the substance begins to boil, part of it passes into a gaseous state and rises up the tube. On the way from the heated walls of the tube, it heats up more and more. It gets to the top, where it stays for a while. During this time, the gas transfers part of the heat to the massive tip, gradually cools, condenses and settles down, where the process is repeated again.

The second way - U-type - is a traditional tube filled with coolant. No news or surprises here. Everything is as usual: on the one hand, the coolant enters, passing through the tube, it heats up from sunlight. Despite its simplicity, this type of heat exchanger is more efficient. But it is used less frequently. And all because solar water heaters of this type are a single whole. If one tube is damaged, the entire section must be replaced.

Tubular collectors with the Heat-pipe system are more expensive, show less efficiency, but are used more often. And all because a damaged tube can be changed in a couple of minutes. Moreover, if the flask is coaxial, then the tube can also be repaired. It is simply disassembled (the top cap is removed) and the damaged element (heat channel or bulb itself) is replaced with a serviceable one. The tube is then inserted into place.

Which collector is better for heating

For the southern regions with mild winter and large quantity sunny days in a year the best option is a flat collector. In such a climate, it shows the highest productivity.

For regions with a more severe climate, tubular collectors are suitable. And for harsh winters systems with Heat-pipe are more suitable: they heat even at night and even in cloudy weather, collecting most of the spectrum of solar radiation. They are not afraid of low temperatures, but the exact temperature range needs to be clarified: it depends on the substance in the thermal channel.

These systems, if properly calculated, can be basic, but more often they simply save heating costs from another, paid energy source.

Another auxiliary heating can be an air collector. It can be made to the entire wall, and it is easily implemented with your own hands. It is perfect for heating a garage or cottage. Moreover, problems with insufficient heating may not arise in winter, as you expect, but in autumn. In frost and snow, the energy of the sun is many times greater than in cloudy rainy weather.

Solar panels

When we hear the words “solar energy”, we first of all think of batteries that convert light into electricity. And this is done by special photoelectric converters. They are produced by the industry from different semiconductors. Most often for domestic use We use silicon solar cells. They have the most low price and show a fairly decent performance: 20-25%.

Solar panels for a private home in some countries - a common occurrence

Direct use of solar panels for heating is possible only if the boiler or other heater on electricity you connect to this current source. Also, solar panels in conjunction with electric batteries can be integrated into the home's electricity supply system and thus reduce monthly bills for electricity used. In principle, it is quite realistic to fully meet the needs of the family from these installations. It just takes a lot of money and space. On average, 120-150W can be obtained from a square meter of a panel. So consider how many squares of the roof or local area should be occupied by such panels.

Features of solar heating

Many people doubt the expediency of installing a solar heating system. The main argument is that it is expensive and will never pay for itself. We have to agree with the fact that it is expensive: the prices for equipment are rather high. But no one is stopping you from starting small. For example, to evaluate the effectiveness and practicality of the idea to make a similar installation yourself. Costs are minimal, and you will have first-hand experience. Then you will decide whether to deal with all this or not. Here's the thing: all the negative messages are from theorists. From practitioners did not meet a single one. There is an active search for ways to improve, rework, but no one said that the idea is useless. It's about something.

Now that installing a solar heating system will never pay off. While the payback period

Bridges in our country are big. It is comparable to the lifetime of solar collectors or batteries. But if we look at the dynamics of growth in prices for all energy carriers, we can assume that it will soon be reduced to quite acceptable terms.

Now actually about how to make a system. First of all, you need to determine the need for your home and seven in heat and hot water. The general methodology for calculating a solar heating system is as follows:

• Knowing in which region the house is located, you can find out how much sunlight falls on 1m 2 of area in each month of the year. Experts call this insolation. Based on these data, you can then estimate how much solar panels You need. But first you need to determine how much heat is needed for the preparation of domestic hot water and heating.
• If the counter hot water you have, then you know the volumes of hot water that you spend monthly. Display the average consumption data for the month or calculate the maximum consumption - it's whoever wants it. You should also have data on the heat loss of the house.
• Have a look at the solar heaters you would like to supply. Having data on their performance, you can roughly determine the number of elements needed to cover your needs.

In addition to determining the number of components of the solar system, it will be necessary to determine the volume of the tank in which hot water for hot water will be accumulated. This can easily be done by knowing your family's actual expenses. If you have a DHW meter installed and you have data for several years, you can calculate the average consumption per day (average consumption per month divided by the number of days). This is roughly the size of the tank you need. But the tank needs to be taken with a margin of 20% or so. Just in case.

If there is no hot water supply or a meter, you can use the consumption rates. One person consumes on average 100-150 liters of water per day. Knowing how many people permanently live in the house, you will calculate the required volume of the tank: the rate is multiplied by the number of residents.

It must be said right away that a rational (in terms of payback) for central Russia is a solar heating system that covers about 30% of the heat demand and fully supplies hot water. This is an average result: in some months, heating will be provided by 70-80% by the solar system, and in some (December-January) by only 10%. And again, a lot depends on the type of solar panels and the region of residence.

And it's not just a matter of "north" or "south." It's about the number of sunny days. For example, in very cold Chukotka, solar heating will be very efficient: the sun almost always shines there. In the much milder climate of England, with eternal fogs, its effectiveness is extremely low.
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Results

Despite many critics who talk about the inefficiency of solar energy and the too long payback period, more and more people are switching at least partially to alternative sources. In addition to saving, many are attracted by independence from the state and its pricing policy. In order not to regret the sums invested in vain, you can first conduct an experiment: make one of the solar installations with your own hands and decide for yourself how much it attracts you (or not).

Building solar heating for a private house with your own hands is not such a difficult task as it seems to an uninformed layman. This will require the skills of a welder and materials available at any hardware store.

The relevance of creating solar heating for a private house with your own hands

To get full autonomy is the dream of every owner who starts private construction. But is solar energy really capable of heating a residential building, especially if the device for its accumulation is assembled in a garage?

Depending on the region, the solar flux can give from 50 W/sq.m on a cloudy day to 1400 W/sq.m on a clear day. summer sky. With such indicators, even a primitive collector with low efficiency (45-50%) and an area of ​​15 sq.m. can produce about 7000-10000 kWh per year. And this saved 3 tons of firewood for a solid fuel boiler!

• on average for square meter devices accounted for 900 watts;
• to raise the temperature of the water, it is necessary to spend 1.16 W;
• taking into account also the heat loss of the collector, 1 sq.m will be able to heat about 10 liters of water per hour to a temperature of 70 degrees;
• to provide 50 liters of hot water needed by one person, you will need to spend 3.48 kW;
• after checking the data of the hydrometeorological center on the power of solar radiation (W / sq.m) in the region, it is necessary to divide 3480 W by the resulting solar radiation power - this will be the required area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe solar collector to heat 50 liters of water.

As it becomes clear, effective heating system it is rather problematic to implement it exclusively with the use of solar energy. After all, in the gloomy winter season there is very little solar radiation, and to place a collector with an area of ​​120 sq.m. doesn't always work out.

So are solar collectors non-functional? Don't discount them ahead of time. So, with the help of such a drive, you can do without a boiler in the summer - there will be enough power to provide the family with hot water. In winter, it will be possible to reduce energy costs by supplying already heated water from a solar collector to an electric boiler.
In addition, the solar collector will be an excellent assistant to the heat pump in a house with low-temperature heating (warm floors).

So, in winter, the heated coolant will be used in warm floors, and in summer, excess heat can be sent to the geothermal circuit. This will reduce the power of the heat pump.
After all, geothermal heat is not renewed, so over time, an ever-increasing “cold bag” is formed in the thickness of the soil. For example, in a conventional geothermal circuit, at the beginning of the heating season, the temperature is +5 degrees, and at the end -2C. When heated, the initial temperature rises to +15 C, and by the end of the heating season does not fall below +2C.

Homemade solar collector device

For a self-confident master, it is not difficult to assemble a thermal collector. You can start with a small device for providing hot water in the country, and in case of a successful experiment, move on to creating a full-fledged solar station.

Flat solar collector made of metal pipes

The simplest collector to perform is a flat one. For his device you will need:

• welding machine;
• pipes made of stainless steel or copper;
• steel sheet;
• tempered glass or polycarbonate;
• wooden boards for the frame;
• non-combustible insulation that can withstand metal heated to 200 degrees;
• black matte paint resistant to high temperatures.

The assembly of the solar collector is quite simple:

1. The pipes are welded to a steel sheet - it acts as an absorber of solar energy, so the pipes should fit as tightly as possible. Everything is painted matte black.



2. A frame is placed on the sheet with pipes so that the pipes are with inside. Holes are drilled for the entry and exit of pipes. The heater is installed. If a hygroscopic material is used, you need to take care of waterproofing - after all, wet insulation will no longer protect pipes from cooling.





3. The insulation is fixed with an OSB sheet, all joints are filled with sealant.
4. On the side of the adsorber is placed clear glass or polycarbonate with a small air gap. It serves to prevent the steel sheet from cooling down.
5. You can fix the glass using wooden window glazing beads, after laying the sealant. It will prevent cold air from entering and protect the glass from compressing the frame when heated and cooled.

For the full functioning of the collector, you will need a storage tank. It can be made from plastic barrel, insulated from the outside, in which a heat exchanger connected to a solar collector is laid in a spiral. The hot water inlet should be at the top and the cold outlet at the bottom.

It is important to place the tank and manifold correctly. To ensure natural circulation of water, the tank must be above the collector, and the pipes must have a constant slope.

Solar heater from improvised materials

If with welding machine friendship could not be reduced, you can make a simple solar heater from what is at hand. For example, from cans. To do this, holes are made in the bottom, the banks themselves are fastened to each other with a sealant, and they sit on it at the junctions with PVC pipes. They are painted black and fit into a frame under glass in the same way as ordinary pipes.

Solar house facade

Why not decorate the house with something useful instead of ordinary siding? For example, by making a solar heater on the south side of the entire wall.

Such a solution will allow to optimize heating costs in two directions at once - to reduce energy costs and significantly reduce heat losses due to additional insulation of the facade.

The device is simple to disgrace and does not require special tools:

• a painted galvanized sheet is laid on the insulation;
• stainless steel is laid on top corrugated pipe, also painted black;
• everything is covered with polycarbonate sheets and fixed with aluminum corners.

If this method seems complicated, the video shows a variant of tin, polypropylene pipes and film. How much easier!