Why do we need Logic? Why do we need mathematics - one of the most obvious manifestations of logic? All this is necessary to help a person solve problems and, as expected, based on this knowledge, we will be able to better understand life.

Why do you think a graduate of, say, a textile technical school can figure it out without any problems and after that work quite qualified, say, at a power plant, if he was practically not taught the features of this specialty? Why sometimes strangers understand each other perfectly, and sometimes they “fight” over this for years? Why do women misunderstand men and men misunderstand women?

In all these cases, the reason is the same - their Logic: if people have the same way of reasoning, they will easily understand each other (just like two graduates of completely different technical universities), and if the way of reasoning of one differs from the way of reasoning of another - complete mutual understanding impossible.

So Logic can be called a way of reasoning. There is standard logic, female logic, associative logic, and so on. There are many ways of reasoning, and, for example, you, the Reader, personally use your way of reasoning, your Logic.

During the search for Truths, we were most interested in such a way of reasoning, which would UNMISTAKELY predict the future in any life situation. We were interested in a method of reasoning that would work without a single error, without a single exception, and, at the same time, would be simple enough to be used in Everyday life when communicating with people and predicting their behavior and actions. And we found this method! It is set forth in this book and every chapter written here is “soaked through and through”.

And now - short review what we have discarded as "methods of reasoning having exceptions" i.e. we will show you some examples of Truths that are not Truths.

Here is an example of mathematical logic: 0.5+0.5=1. In ordinary language, if you add two halves, for example, of the same substance, you get one whole. Indeed, if you add half a bucket of rice to the same amount, you get exactly a bucket of rice. However, if we take two halves of an apple and attach one to the other, we will not get a whole apple, we get all the same two halves of it. Those. this kind of Logic is the Truth, but not the Truth.

Yu.V. Ivlev in the textbook for universities "Logic" gives an example of research (in order to find out whether the ability to think logically is inherent in people), during which peasants were asked: "Does the third statement (and called them) follow from two statements (about the presence in the neighboring district center post office)? Do you know what the peasant answered? “What I don’t know, I don’t know. I've never been there". Further, the author concludes: “The logical culture of a modern literate person is higher than the logical culture of the peasants that were discussed. It even seems strange to us not to understand such simple reasoning.” Do you know what is the most amazing thing? The peasant answered the question from the position of CONFIDENCE! He was offered to draw a conclusion from the words he had said (they said that there is a post office in every district center) and asked: “Is there a post office in the neighboring district center?” And the peasant's Real Intention to make mistakes (unlike logicians) turned out to be equal to zero! He did not want to look at this situation from any other point of view, except from the point of view of CONFIDENCE!

In general, the fact that standard Logic studies judgments, statements, assertions is very indicative - i.e. all those things that we have designated by the word "Declared". But it would be much easier to compare statements with facts - it's much faster and this method is really error-free!

In conclusion, we can say that the representatives of standard Logic, in addition to other Real Intentions, have the following: "To get confused in words and try to confuse others."

There are also examples of “everyday” logic (I don’t want to capitalize this word!) such as “jealous - it means love”, “the longer the thread - the lazier the seamstress”, etc. etc. - the whole darkness of proverbs, sayings and aphorisms. And some people build their lives (it would be funny if it weren't sad!) on the basis of statements, among which are full of lies and truths. Yes, full of truths and lies! If you are overcome by doubts - take any collection of such statements and try to find Truths there (rules that have no exceptions)!

There is also a very "wonderful" pattern of reasoning among believers, which is built on quotations from sacred books, there are other ways of reasoning - however, they are also based on someone else's information, i.e. on VERA.

Let's define LOGIC.

LOGIC is a way of reasoning that includes certain rules and principles that are applied to find the best way actions and to solve problems that arise in the course of life.

Ask people around why they do something, how they understand this or that word, and you can get to the bottom of the rules that people use in life and that make up their Logic. The results that you get will be able to stun anyone, it will be something like the logic of one of the interviewed girls: “I am looking for a smart (!) man, so first of all I look at his shoes - if he has them polished, then (!) he is good to himself (!) and will be good to his wife (!) - so he is a suitable candidate for me. It is not surprising that this girl, instead of mutual understanding, will find only "polished shoes" in marriage! By the way, what did you find in your marriage as a result of using your Logic?

There is Logic, using which you will never get into trouble. Here is its definition.

ERROR-FREE LOGIC - logic based on Truths.

The same girl, using ERROR-FREE LOGIC, would not associate her life with a man whose most important Real Intentions for him are different from the Most Important Real Intentions for her, because. she would understand that the life of spouses whose Real Intentions are different is a life of conflicts, quarrels and resentments. Here's an example of Infallible Logic!

Only with the help of such logic it is possible to SOLVE (!) any problem in this universe!

The TRUTH in this book are just such rules, and they are right in front of you! Can someone stop you from using them?

Every day we are faced with many tasks, the solution of which requires our ability to think logically. Logic as the ability to think and reason consistently and consistently is required in many life situations, from solving complex technical and business problems to persuading interlocutors and making purchases in a store.

But despite the high need for this skill, we often make logical errors without knowing it ourselves. Indeed, among many people there is an opinion that it is possible to think correctly on the basis of life experience and the so-called common sense, without using the laws and special techniques of “formal logic”. For performing simple logical operations, making elementary judgments and simple conclusions, it may also be suitable common sense, and if you need to know or explain something more complex, then common sense often leads us to delusions.

The reasons for these misconceptions lie in the principles of development and formation of the foundations of people's logical thinking, which are laid down in childhood. Teaching logical thinking is not carried out purposefully, but is identified with mathematics lessons (for children at school or for students at the university), as well as with solving and passing various games, tests, tasks and puzzles. But such actions contribute to the development of only a small fraction of the processes of logical thinking. In addition, they quite primitively explain to us the principles of finding solutions to tasks. As for the development of verbal-logical thinking (or verbal-logical thinking), the ability to correctly perform mental operations, consistently come to conclusions, for some reason we are not taught this. That is why the level of development of logical thinking of people is not high enough.

We believe that logical thinking a person and his ability to know should develop systematically and on the basis of a special terminological apparatus and logical tools. In the classroom of this online training, you will learn about self-education methods for the development of logical thinking, get acquainted with the main categories, principles, features and laws of logic, and also find examples and exercises for applying the acquired knowledge and skills.

What is logical thinking?

To explain what "logical thinking" is, we divide this concept into two parts: thinking and logic. Now let's define each of these components.

Human thinking- this is a mental process of processing information and establishing links between objects, their properties or phenomena of the surrounding world. Thinking allows a person to find connections between the phenomena of reality, but in order for the connections found to really reflect the true state of affairs, thinking must be objective, correct, or, in other words, logical, that is, subject to the laws of logic.

Logics translated from Greek, it has several meanings: “the science of right thinking”, “the art of reasoning”, “speech”, “reasoning” and even “thought”. In our case, we will proceed from the most popular definition of logic as a normative science about the forms, methods and laws of human intellectual mental activity. Logic studies ways to achieve truth in the process of cognition in an indirect way, not from sensory experience, but from knowledge gained earlier, therefore it can also be defined as the science of ways to obtain inferential knowledge. One of the main tasks of logic is to determine how to come to a conclusion from the existing premises and obtain true knowledge about the subject of thought in order to better understand the nuances of the subject of thought under study and its relationships with other aspects of the phenomenon under consideration.

We can now define logical thinking itself.

This is a thought process in which a person uses logical concepts and constructions, which is characterized by evidence, prudence, and the purpose of which is to obtain a reasonable conclusion from the existing premises.

There are also several types of logical thinking, we list them, starting with the simplest:

Figurative-logical thinking

Figurative-logical thinking (visual-figurative thinking) - various thought processes of the so-called "figurative" problem solving, which involves a visual representation of the situation and operating with images of its constituent objects. Visual-figurative thinking, in fact, is a synonym for the word "imagination", which allows us to most vividly and clearly recreate the whole variety of various actual characteristics of an object or phenomenon. This type of human mental activity is formed in childhood starting at about 1.5 years old.

To understand how developed this type of thinking is in you, we suggest you take the Raven Progressive Matrices IQ Test.

The Raven test is a scale of progressive matrices for assessing the intelligence quotient and the level of mental abilities, as well as the logical thinking, developed in 1936 by John Raven in collaboration with Roger Penrose. This test can give the most objective assessment of the IQ of the tested people, regardless of their level of education, social class, occupation, language and cultural characteristics. That is, it can be argued with a high probability that the data obtained as a result of this test in two people from different parts of the world will equally assess their IQ. The objectivity of the assessment is ensured by the fact that the basis of this test is exclusively images of figures, and since Raven's matrices are among the non-verbal intelligence tests, his tasks do not contain text.

The test consists of 60 tables. You will be offered drawings with figures related to each other by a certain dependence. One figure is missing, it is given at the bottom of the picture among 6-8 other figures. Your task is to establish a pattern that connects the figures in the figure, and indicate the number of the correct figure by choosing from the options offered. Each series of tables contains tasks of increasing difficulty; at the same time, the complication of the type of tasks is also observed from series to series.

Abstract logical thinking

Abstract logical thinking- this is the completion of the thought process with the help of categories that do not exist in nature (abstractions). Abstract thinking helps a person to model relationships not only between real objects, but also between abstract and figurative representations that thinking itself has created. Abstract-logical thinking has several forms: concept, judgment and conclusion, which you can learn more about in the lessons of our training.

Verbal-logical thinking

Verbal-logical thinking (verbal-logical thinking) is one of the types of logical thinking, characterized by the use of language tools and speech structures. This type of thinking involves not only the skillful use of thought processes, but also the competent use of one's speech. We need verbal-logical thinking for public speaking, writing texts, arguing, and in other situations where we have to express our thoughts using language.

Application of logic

Thinking using the tools of logic is necessary in almost any field of human activity, including the exact and human sciences, economics and business, rhetoric and public speaking, creative process and invention. In some cases, strict and formalized logic is used, for example, in mathematics, philosophy, and technology. In other cases, logic only provides a person with useful techniques for obtaining a reasonable conclusion, for example, in economics, history, or simply in ordinary "life" situations.

As already mentioned, often we try to think logically on an intuitive level. Some do it well, some worse. But when connecting the logical apparatus, it is still better to know what kind of mental techniques we use, since in this case we can:

• More precisely, choose the right method that will allow you to come to the right conclusion;
• Think faster and better - as a consequence of the previous paragraph;
• Better express your thoughts;
• Avoid self-deception and logical fallacies,
• Identify and eliminate errors in the conclusions of other people, cope with sophistry and demagoguery;
• Use the right arguments to convince the interlocutors.

Often, the use of logical thinking is associated with the rapid solution of tasks for logic and passing tests to determine the level of intellectual development (IQ). But this trend is related to more with bringing mental operations to automatism, which is a very small part of how logic can be useful to a person.

The ability to think logically combines many skills in the use of various mental actions and includes:

1. Knowledge of the theoretical foundations of logic.
2. The ability to correctly perform such mental operations as: classification, concretization, generalization, comparison, analogy and others.
3. Confident use of key forms of thinking: concept, judgment, inference.
4. The ability to argue your thoughts in accordance with the laws of logic.
5. Ability to quickly and effectively solve complex logical problems (both educational and applied).

Of course, such operations of thinking with the use of logic as definition, classification and categorization, proof, refutation, conclusion, conclusion and many others are used by every person in his mental activity. But we use them unconsciously and often with errors without a clear idea of ​​the depth and complexity of those mental actions that make up even the most elementary act of thinking. And if you want your logical thinking to be really correct and strict, this needs to be specially and purposefully studied.

How to learn it?

Logical thinking is not given to us from birth, it can only be learned. There are two main aspects of teaching logic: theoretical and practical.

theoretical logic , which is taught at universities, introduces students to the main categories, laws and rules of logic.

Practical training aimed at applying the acquired knowledge in life. However, in reality modern learning practical logic is usually associated with passing various tests and solving problems to check the level of development of intelligence (IQ) and for some reason does not affect the application of logic in real life situations.

To actually master logic, one should combine theoretical and applied aspects. Lessons and exercises should be aimed at the formation of an intuitive logical toolkit brought to automatism and consolidation of the acquired knowledge in order to apply them in real situations.

According to this principle, the online training that you are now reading was compiled. The purpose of this course is to teach you how to think logically and apply the methods of logical thinking. Classes are aimed at getting acquainted with the basics of logical thinking (thesaurus, theories, methods, models), mental operations and forms of thinking, rules of argumentation and laws of logic. In addition, each lesson contains tasks and exercises for practicing the use of acquired knowledge in practice.

Logic lessons

Having collected a wide range of theoretical materials, as well as having studied and adapted the experience of teaching applied forms of logical thinking, we have prepared a number of lessons for the full mastery of this skill.

We will devote the first lesson of our course to a complex but very important topic - the logical analysis of language. It is worth mentioning right away that this topic may seem to many to be abstract, loaded with terminology, inapplicable in practice. Don't be scared! The logical analysis of language is the basis of any logical system and correct reasoning. Those terms that we learn here will become our logical alphabet, without knowing which it is simply impossible to go further, but gradually we will learn to use it with ease.

A logical concept is a form of thinking that reflects objects and phenomena in their essential features. Concepts are different types: concrete and abstract, singular and general, collective and non-collective, irrelative and correlative, positive and negative, and others. Within the framework of logical thinking, it is important to be able to distinguish these types of concepts, as well as produce new concepts and definitions, find relationships between concepts and perform special actions on them: generalization, limitation and division. You will learn all this in this lesson.

In the first two lessons, we talked about the fact that the task of logic is to help us move from an intuitive use of language, accompanied by errors and disagreements, to a more orderly use of it, devoid of ambiguity. The ability to handle concepts correctly is one of the necessary skills for this. Another equally important skill is the ability to give definitions correctly. In this tutorial, we'll show you how to learn it and how to avoid the most common mistakes.

A logical judgment is a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied about the surrounding world, objects, phenomena, as well as relationships and connections between them. Propositions in logic consist of a subject (what the judgment is about), a predicate (what is said about the subject), a connective (what connects the subject and the predicate), and a quantifier (the scope of the subject). Judgments can be of various types: simple and complex, categorical, general, particular, singular. The forms of connections between the subject and the predicate also differ: equivalence, intersection, subordination and compatibility. In addition, within the framework of compound (complex) judgments, there may be their own links that define six more types of complex judgments. The ability to think logically presupposes the ability to build correctly different kinds judgments, understand their structural elements, signs, relationships between judgments, and also check whether the judgment is true or false.

Before proceeding to the last third form of thinking (inference), it is important to understand what logical laws exist, or, in other words, objectively existing rules construction of logical thinking. Their purpose, on the one hand, is to help build inferences and argumentation, and on the other hand, to prevent errors and violations of logic associated with reasoning. In this lesson, the following laws of formal logic will be considered: the law of identity, the law of the excluded middle, the law of contradiction, the law of sufficient reason, as well as de Morgan's laws, the laws of deductive reasoning, Clavius's law and the laws of division. By studying the examples and doing special exercises, you will learn how to purposefully use each of these laws.

Inference is the third form of thinking in which one, two or more judgments, called premises, follow a new judgment, called conclusion or conclusion. Inferences are divided into three types: deductive, inductive and inferences by analogy. In deductive reasoning (deduction), a conclusion is drawn from a general rule for a particular case. Induction is an inference in which, from several special cases, general rule. In inference by analogy, on the basis of the similarity of objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features. In this lesson, you will get acquainted with all types and subtypes of inferences, learn how to build a variety of cause-and-effect relationships.

This lesson will focus on multi-premise inferences. Just as in the case of one-parcel inferences, the whole necessary information in covert will be present in the parcels. However, since there will now be a lot of parcels, the methods for extracting them become more complex, and therefore the information obtained in the conclusion will not seem trivial. In addition, it should be noted that there are many different kinds of multi-premise inferences. We will focus only on syllogisms. They differ in that both in the premises and in the conclusion they have categorical attributive statements and, based on the presence or absence of some properties of objects, allow us to conclude that they have or do not have other properties.

In previous lessons, we talked about various logical operations that are an important part of any reasoning. Among them were operations on concepts, definitions, judgments and inferences. So on this moment it should be clear what components the reasoning consists of. However, nowhere have we touched on the questions of how reasoning can be organized in general and what types of reasoning are in principle. This will be the topic of the last lesson. To begin with, reasoning is divided into deductive and plausible. All types of inferences discussed in previous lessons: inferences on a logical square, inversions, syllogisms, enthymemes, sorites - are precisely deductive reasoning. Them hallmark consists in the fact that the premises and conclusions in them are connected by a relation of strict logical consequence, while in the case of plausible reasoning there is no such connection. First, let's talk more about deductive reasoning.

How to take classes?

The lessons themselves with all the exercises can be completed in 1-3 weeks, having learned the theoretical material and practiced a little. But for the development of logical thinking, it is important to study systematically, read a lot and constantly train.

For maximum effect we recommend that you first just read the entire material, spending 1-2 evenings on it. Then go through 1 lesson daily, doing the necessary exercises and following the suggested recommendations. After you have mastered all the lessons, engage in effective repetition in order to remember the material for a long time. Further, try to apply the methods of logical thinking more often in life, when writing articles, letters, when communicating, in disputes, in business, and even at your leisure. Reinforce your knowledge by reading books and textbooks, as well as with the help of additional material, which will be discussed below.

Additional material

In addition to the lessons in this section, we tried to pick up a lot useful material on the topic under consideration:

• Logic tasks;
• Tests for logical thinking;
• Logical games;
• The smartest people in Russia and the world;
• Video tutorials and master classes.

As well as books and textbooks, articles, quotes, auxiliary trainings.

Books and textbooks on logic

On this page we have selected useful books and textbooks that will help you deepen your knowledge in logic and logical thinking:

• "Applied Logic". Nikolai Nikolaevich Nepeyvoda;
• "Textbook of logic". Georgy Ivanovich Chelpanov;
• "Logic: lecture notes". Dmitry Shadrin;
• "Logics. Training course "(educational and methodological complex). Dmitry Alekseevich Gusev;
• "Logic for lawyers" (collection of problems). HELL. Getmanova;

Every day a person is faced with a mass of life tasks that need to be solved logically. This includes the correct construction of the work schedule, official moments and even personal life. It would seem that everything is quite simple: exclude unimportant details, focus on serious aspects, thereby correctly setting priorities. However, in practice, the situation requires some effort. You can develop logic on your own, without signing up for special courses. Let's consider all the nuances in more detail.

Logical thinking: what is it?

The concept of "logical thinking" is easier to explain if we break the phrase into "logic" and "thinking". Let's try to figure it out together, highlighting the main thing.

Logics
The concept comes from the Greek “reasoning”, “thought”, “the art of reasoning correctly”, “the science of thinking”. Let's analyze the concept, taking as a basis the science of right thinking. It consists of several aspects, such as the laws, methods and forms of the human intellect, namely his thoughts.

Logic is needed in order to achieve truth in the process of reasoning. Thanks to active brain activity, a certain scheme is launched that leads a person to the end point. The result is taken not by intuition, but from previously acquired knowledge.

For this reason, logic is often referred to as a science that allows you to reach conclusions through many conclusions and their connection. The main task of logic is the generalization of the available fragments together. As a result, a person receives true knowledge regarding the subject of reflection.

Thinking

The concept is directly related to the mental activity of a person. It forces you to process information at a subconscious level. This must be done in order to establish a connection between the objects under study, to highlight their forms and meaning among other bodies of the environment.

Thinking allows you to find a connection between aspects of reality. However, in order for the process to take place at the “correct” level, one must think objectively. That is, before the main tasks, it is important to put yourself at the center of the current process, and not to watch everything from the outside. Objective or logical thinking must obey the basic laws of logic.

Logical thinking
From the foregoing, we can conclude what "logical thinking" is. As a result of the thought process, a person applies the knowledge gained earlier. Then, by inference, they are processed. All structures are connected in a logical chain in order. Conclusions are not based on assumptions, but on clear evidence, facts, prudence, objectivity, general laws of logic. Ultimately, on the basis of the existing premises, the truth is obtained.

Why develop logical thinking

It is human nature to process information through brainstorming. Simply put, all people think this is a completely natural process. Thinking allows you to build a chain of personal behavior, draw the right conclusions in a given situation, and take action. Such aspects play an important role in situations where a decision is urgently needed. Ultimately, the goal will be achieved through logical reasoning.

When you fully learn the art of analyzing information, issues will be resolved many times faster. Thanks to correct collection and processing information, you can build a long-term perspective regarding your own actions. Such aspects help people feel comfortable in any situation. You will calculate in advance the possible nuances, then immediately exclude them in your head by searching for a new solution. You always need to think logically, no matter if you are at work or at home.

The greatest minds of the world annually bring out new ways of developing logical thinking. Experienced business coaches, politicians, psychologists - they all help people develop. Most relevant ways achieving the desired are considered puzzles aimed at the manifestation of logic. Also effective are games, a set of exercises for objective thinking, reading scientific and fiction, learning foreign languages.

Method number 1. Reading

1. Many people know that books allow you to gain wisdom, become a versatile and well-read person. However, success can only be achieved through fiction or scientific literature. It is in such publications that there is more knowledge than in numerous reference books.
2. To develop logical thinking, read at least 10 sheets daily. At the same time, it is important to analyze each line, gradually accumulating information in your head. The brain has selective properties, so at a certain moment you will be able to retrieve the necessary information.
3. In the process of reading, analyze the chapters, try to think logically from the very beginning. Make bets on how the book will end, how this or that character will act in a particular situation. A. Conan Doyle's book "Sherlock Holmes" is considered a world bestseller. The work helps to develop logical thinking and pass the evening in a pleasant company.

Method number 2. Games

1. The most common games aimed at developing logical thinking are checkers and chess. In the process of rivalry, opponents calculate their actions many steps ahead. It is this move that allows you to win, nothing else. It is not difficult to learn tactics, it is enough to devote 2-3 hours daily to this business. As the age of technology leaves its mark on society, you can play on a computer, phone or tablet. At the same time, you will have access to the logic simulator around the clock, regardless of the place and other "live" rivals.
2. The next most popular game is Scrabble. Many have heard about it since childhood. A linguistic simulator for people who have a small vocabulary and slow logic. As a result of manipulations, you will learn how to compose words from existing letters, laying them out in a certain sequence. As in the previous case, you can play on a PC or smartphone. In addition to the development of logic, you will become more concentrated, attentive.
3. To improve logical thinking, you can play with words. There are several variations of such an adventure, we will consider them in order. Some prefer to name one long word (the number of letters is from 10), after which the task of other participants is to compose other words from the “raw materials”. The one with the highest number wins. The second option is as follows: a person calls a word, the next one says another word, starting with the last letter of the previous one. For example, you said "sailor", the opponent answered "apartment".
4. The World Wide Web is literally full of various banners that offer to go to a site with logical riddles. Such a move will allow developing thinking not only in adults, but also in children. Also popular games are crossword puzzles, sudoku, rebuses, reversi. Download applications on your smartphone that help develop logical thinking. Such a move will train the brain in public transport or in a traffic jam. This is much more useful than studying flyers and tired faces of people.
5. Take a closer look at games like Rubik's Cube or backgammon, collect puzzles, play poker. Thanks to increased concentration, memory and logical thinking develop. The World Wide Web allows you to play without a second partner, which is an indisputable plus. You can solve the Rubik's Cube while resting between classes or during your lunch break. The main thing in any business is regularity. Perform simple manipulations daily to achieve maximum results.

Method number 3. Exercises

1. Mathematical problems and logical chains from the school (institute) program will help you develop logic quickly enough. Find old textbooks and start manipulating. Perform the exercise daily for 30-60 minutes. It will be especially difficult for the humanities, for whom mathematics is a bone in the throat. An analogue is the search for analogies or deciphering anagrams.
2. Consider an exercise that consists in orderly building words or phrases of the same topic. The main task is as follows: it is necessary to build words from smallest to largest. That is, the first designation characterizes a specific species, and the last - a generalized concept. Let's take the word "violet" as an example. Violet - name - flower - plant. The more words you pick up and arrange them in one chain, the more logical thinking will be involved. The complex must be performed at least 2 times a day for 15 minutes.
3. Another exercise is aimed not only at logical thinking, but also the development of intellectual abilities, attentiveness, observation, concentration and general perception. The main point is considered to be that you need to determine how correctly the conclusion is made. Is it logical, based on the connection between judgments.

For example: “Cats meow. Alice is a cat, so she can meow!" The argument is logically correct. If we talk about the wrong logic, then it looks like this: “Woolen clothes are warm. Boots are also warm, so they are made of wool! An erroneous judgment, boots may not be made of wool, but their thermal qualities will exceed all expectations.

This exercise is often used by parents when working with children. It is important to ask your child to explain this or that conclusion. In this case, the child will quickly come to the desired conclusion.

Method number 4. Foreign language

1. It is known that new information received activates brain activity, as a result of which all processes take place on the highest level. The sounds of foreign languages ​​will make you think logically, make associations between native and foreign speech.
2. Find an online course on the Internet or download video lessons, practice daily. Enroll in a language school, learn English, Spanish or even Chinese thoroughly.
3. The effect of the acquired knowledge will not keep you waiting. In addition, you will be able to travel around the countries, talking freely with local residents. Communicate in chats and forums with the inhabitants of Europe or America, develop the acquired knowledge.

It is difficult enough to develop logical thinking, but the procedure cannot be called unrealistic. Consider popular games such as backgammon, checkers, chess, poker. Solve mathematical problems, build logical chains using electronic resources, learn foreign languages.

Video: how to develop logic and speed of thinking

Of course, the subject of any science becomes quite clear only in the process of getting to know the science itself, therefore all preliminary definitions of this subject remain incomplete and not very clear. However, you have to start somewhere.

Logic is the science of the forms and laws of cognitive thinking.

Logic studies thinking, but not all, but only those mental processes that are aimed at discovering and substantiating truth, at solving a certain problem, at finding ways to overcome certain difficulties that confront us both in professional activity and in everyday life. Sometimes in the morning, looking at yourself in the mirror, you may think: “Whoa, what a disgusting face I have today!” Logic hardly touches such thought processes; their study is a matter of psychology or even psychiatry. Logic is primarily interested in cognitive processes. So what is “cognitive thinking”? Try to answer a few simple questions.

I have two coins in my pocket, which add up to 15 kopecks, but one of these coins is not a nickel. What are these coins? You start thinking: 7 and 8 kopecks? There are no such coins. Maybe 2, 3 and 10 kopecks? But then it turns out three coins, and there are only two of them. Finally, the thought comes: one of them is not a piglet, but the other one can be a piglet! Answer: 10 and 5 kopecks.

The night watchman died not at night, but during the day. Will he get a pension? You begin to remember what you know about pension legislation, then suddenly you catch on: but he died, why would he need a pension? Answer: No, they won't.

Can a decent man marry his widow's sister? The word "decent" grabs your attention and you wonder: is it ethical to marry your wife's sister? But soon the thought comes: the wife is already a widow, which means that the person in question is dead! It is clear that he can no longer marry anyone, and the words "decent man" simply divert our attention from this decisive circumstance.

In all these cases, the search for a solution comes down to putting forward some assumption and deriving consequences from it. If the consequences do not agree with the conditions of the problem, we discard the original assumption and put forward a new one, and so on. Despite the simplicity of the given examples, the search for their solution reproduces the main features of any cognitive process: a problem - a hypothetical solution - checking the solution and discarding it, if it does not agree with the conditions of the problem and with the truths known to us - putting forward a new solution ... Logic just studies those forms in which cognitive thinking proceeds, and those general principles which it must obey in order to achieve its goal.

Logic is only interested in the form of our thoughts, not their content. The content of our thoughts is infinitely diverse: we can think and talk about volcanoes and stars, about love and entrepreneurship, about sausage, which is always in short supply, and about electrons, from which you don’t know where to go. However, all this diversity fits into a relatively small number of forms. These are the forms that logic studies. Figuratively speaking, the logician is interested in vessels - bottles, buckets, barrels, and not what is poured into them. Whatever you pour into a bottle - narzan, beer, wine - it will remain a bottle and you can study it just like a bottle: explore it geometric shape, volume, wall thickness, etc. In the same way, mental forms, regardless of their content, have certain properties that are studied by logic.

In this respect, logic is similar to grammar, which we studied at school. Grammar also explores and describes the forms of linguistic expressions, abstracting from their content. To illustrate this circumstance, the famous Soviet linguist L.V. Shcherba gave an example of the following sentence invented by him: “The glitched kuzdra shteko boked up the bokra and tails the bokra.” We can’t say anything about the content of this sentence, but knowledge of grammar allows us to assert that the word “kuzdra” is the subject here, “budlanula” is the predicate, “bokra” is the object, etc. We can talk about the gender, number, case of our nouns without having the slightest idea of ​​what the corresponding words mean. Analogous knowledge about the forms of thought is given to us by logic.

Truth and correctness

We have already mentioned the word "truth" several times. It's time to explain it. Questions about what is truth, whether it is possible to get it and how, philosophy explores. Here we confine ourselves to a brief explanation sufficient for the purposes of logic.

A thought is called true if it corresponds to its subject, i.e. represents an object, a situation, a state of affairs as they exist in reality, by themselves. If the thought does not correspond to its subject, distorts it, it is called false. For example, the idea that the Russian composer A.P. Borodin was a chemist, is true, since Borodin really owns a number of works and discoveries in the field of chemistry. However, the idea that bananas grow on an apple tree will be false, because it gives a distorted idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe apple tree.

The logical correctness of reasoning is its compliance with the rules, laws of logic. If you rely on true data and reason correctly, then you will always get a true conclusion. This logic guarantees. Unfortunately, it is possible to reason correctly, but at the same time proceed from false premises. In this case, you can come to any conclusion - both true and false. As the saying goes, everything follows from a lie. For example, if you accepted the premise "All tigers eat grass", then from it you can make both a true conclusion: "Some herbivores are striped", and a false one - "Some herbivores eat tigers". It is important to keep in mind the following: logic cannot tell whether certain premises are true - this is the task of specific sciences and everyday practice - but it helps us to make our reasoning correct. If you rely on lies, your reasoning can take you anywhere. If you rely on the truth, right reasoning will only lead you to the truth.

Thinking and language

Cognitive thinking, studied by logic, is always expressed in language, therefore logic considers thought in its linguistic expression. Sometimes we will just talk about words and sentences, referring to their mental content. Of course, there are thoughts that can be difficult for us to express in language - everyone has come across this: sometimes a schoolboy or student in an exam seems to understand everything, but he cannot say anything. Logic cannot deal with such thoughts, cannot study and analyze them, they remain "inside" the individual consciousness. It is assumed that the cognitive thinking of all people is approximately the same and does not depend on their nationality, social status and cultural differences. Natural languages ​​spoken by humans different peoples, differ quite significantly, which we are disappointed to see when we begin to study foreign languages. Logic studies the forms of thought, not language, therefore its laws and principles are valid for any thinking, regardless of the language in which it is presented. Take, for example, the following two language expressions:

"Snow is white", "Der Schnee ist weiss".

They consist of different signs and generally differ significantly from one another. However, both express the same thought, which in Russian is conveyed by the sentence "Snow is white." Thought is something that is common to all these three completely different linguistic expressions. This idea is studied by logic. Nevertheless, the fundamental characteristics of language also influence our thought, so logic often has to take into account the peculiarities of the linguistic expression of thought.

Stages of development of logic

Logic is one of ancient sciences developed into an independent discipline. Its creator is ancient Greek philosopher and the scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC).

Aristotle's appeal to a systematic exposition of logical knowledge and the development of logic was largely due to social need. A citizen of the ancient polis actively participated in the life of his small state. He regularly attended people's meetings, where issues of war and peace, urban construction, trade, etc. were discussed, annually participated in the election of government officials, and during his life he himself could repeatedly occupy certain positions. For the administration of public posts in ancient Greece, no payment was supposed, so few sought to occupy them. Sometimes citizens were forced to draw lots to appoint someone to command the army, oversee markets or public water pipes. The ancient Greeks sued a lot and with pleasure, and the Greek court did not know the prosecutors and lawyers, the plaintiff and the defendant themselves had to speak before the judges and the public present. The outcome of the case often depended on the ability to clearly state the essence of the case and convincingly substantiate one's claims. In short, a good citizen needed a certain amount of education in order to fulfill his civic duties and exercise his civil rights.

That is why in ancient Greece there was universal education and teachers were highly valued, they were called sophists (from Greek word"sophia" - wisdom), which originally meant "wise man" or "teacher of wisdom". They taught children to read and write, the basics of science, brought up the ability to speak clearly and convincingly, to defend their opinion in disputes. Over time, however, the sophists began to invent tricks aimed at fooling the interlocutor, presenting the enemy in a ridiculous or stupid way, instilling distrust of the truth, and, on the contrary, presenting a lie in snow-white robes of truth. Such unscrupulous tricks and tricks were called "sophisms", and the word "sophist" acquired the negative connotation that he still has. Here are examples of some sophisms preserved in the writings of ancient authors:

“What you didn’t lose, you have. You didn't lose your horns. Therefore, you are horny."

“The one sitting stood up. Who stood up, he stands. Therefore, the seated person is standing.

From the time of Antiquity, the following story has come down to us. The famous sophist Protagoras had a student named Euathlus, who studied law. The teacher and the student entered into an agreement according to which Euathlus had to pay the tuition only after he won his first trial. However, after completing his studies, Euathlus was in no hurry to appear in court. The teacher's patience ran out, and he sued his student.

“In any case, Euathlus will have to pay me,” Protagoras reasoned. He will either win this trial or lose it. If he wins, he will pay by virtue of our contract with him; if he loses, he will pay by virtue of the verdict of the court.

“Nothing of the kind,” Euathlus reasoned in turn. - Indeed, I either win the process or lose it. If I win, the court decision will release me from payment; if I lose, I will not pay by virtue of our agreement.”

The student, as you can see, was worthy of his teacher! Perplexed by this turn of the matter, Protagoras devoted a special essay to this dispute with Euathlus, “A Litigation for Payment,” which, unfortunately, has not come down to us. And if you are publicly asked, for example, such questions (having agreed in advance that you will answer only “yes” or “no”):

“Have you stopped beating your mother?”, “Have you stopped drinking cognac in the morning?” etc. Here you can fall into a slight tetanus: say at least “yes”, at least “no” - you still find yourself in a stupid position.

You feel that you are being cheated a little, but it's hard to say what's the matter. Sophistry began to interfere with the social life of the Greeks, just as, indeed, it interferes with us now. Aristotle systematized the logical knowledge known by that time, adding a lot of new things to them, and wrote several works in which he presented logic as a means of protecting the truth and exposing sophistry and lies. In this capacity, she has been serving people for more than two millennia. The medieval scholastics made a significant contribution to the development of logic, and the Latin terminology introduced by them is still preserved.

In the middle of the XIX century. logic has experienced its own scientific revolution: mathematical (symbolic) logic emerged and began to develop rapidly, using mathematical tools and methods to analyze reasoning. It was she who laid theoretical basis subsequent development of programming languages ​​for computer technology. Aristotelian logic has since become known as traditional.

In Russia, until 1917, logic was taught in the upper grades of the gymnasium, and Russian logicians made a significant contribution to the development of this science. However, shortly after October revolution logic - for a variety of reasons - disappears in Russia. Only in the late 40s. it returns again, first to legal institutes and universities, then to pedagogical and other universities, and in last years Logic is starting to infiltrate schools again.

Why is it important to get familiar with logic?

In our pragmatic age, when faced with something new, people first ask:

"Why do I need it?" Alas, simple curiosity is gradually disappearing, and the eternal pursuit of a career, success, just for a piece of bread leaves almost no time and energy for activities that do not bring immediate benefits. Therefore - why? Why should I read this book? Perhaps the following considerations will seem to you worthy of attention.

First of all, familiarity with logic teaches us to think accurately and express our thoughts clearly. Many people are not able to connect two words at all. Others speak, but so incoherently and vaguely that you will not understand anything. Logic contributes to the formation of coherent and clear speech.

Logic brings up the ability to justify your ideas and decisions and to convince other people. If you are able to substantiate your thought, the solution of a particular issue, then your speech will be not only clear, but also convincing. Whatever type of activity you are engaged in, often it is - necessary condition her success.

More importantly, familiarity with logic gradually forms the habit of analyzing one's own and others' reasoning. Logic also equips us with the means to detect, pinpoint and eliminate the error of reasoning. It helps us cope with demagogy and sophistry, saves us from that earthy innocence that easily pushes us into the arms of sweet-talking crooks. For example, they turn to you with the following reasoning: “I am a person, and you are not me, therefore, you are not a person.” And even if you feel that something is wrong here, can you adequately object? Hardly. At best, grumble something like "You're a fool yourself!" and walk away with a sense of intellectual humiliation. Familiarity with logic will enable you to determine what kind of reasoning it is, what requirements it must satisfy, and which of these requirements is violated here. Having pointed out all this, you will shame the demagogue or the ignoramus, and he will already move away from you, sprinkling ashes on his head.

Logic will teach you to argue. Both in everyday life and in professional activities, we often have to engage in polemics on various issues. We, as a rule, do not know how to argue, and our collisions most often end in a squabble, shouting, and even a fight. Having become acquainted with logic, you will learn how to correctly defend your opinion, refute the erroneous belief of your opponent, find compromises, and expose unscrupulous tricks and tricks.

And yet the most important thing is that logic develops the habit of thinking. Modern life forces a person to know a lot, so the systems of school and higher education are built in such a way as to put as much information into the student's head as possible. But they, as a rule, do not teach to think, do not strive to develop this precious human ability. Therefore, many do not like and do not know how to think. Instead of thinking and finding our own solution to certain problems, we willingly rely on the opinion of some television broadcaster, friends or acquaintances. Of course, it is difficult to think, intense thinking takes as much strength as a miner or a hammerer spends. But after all, it is necessary to think if you do not want to live your whole life as a doll, which is pulled by the strings by clever manipulators. And when thinking becomes a habit, it becomes pleasurable. So an athlete, crunching his spine, sweating, with groans develops his muscles. But then, what delight the play of these muscles gives him, when every cell of the body sings about the joy of bodily existence!

It is for this purpose that a variety of tasks are included in the book. They are simple, but still make you think a little. Think! But this is not a textbook on logic. For a deeper acquaintance with this science, you need to refer to the specialized literature.

What is logic? How many of us have thought about this? simple question. Does anyone know why logic is needed? Consider the main types, essence and forms of this process, starting from the very beginning.

Why do we need logic

Logic is one of the many branches of philosophy. This science studies the forms, methods and laws of conscious and intellectual activity aimed at understanding certain processes. Based on the fact that this knowledge is obtained by the mind, logic is optimal, and even correct thinking. It allows you to study various processes and subjects, not relying on experience, but rather on knowledge that has been obtained previously. By accumulating data from various sources, we can intelligently put forward theories, thereby penetrating the essence of the creation of objects.

Logic types
The famous philosopher Kant put forward a type of logic, which he called transcendental. He was able to successfully separate the logical consequence and the logical reason from real reasons and consequences. He also recognized the existence of a formal type of logic. Further studies of this issue were repeatedly criticized by such scientists as Hegel and others.

Forms of logic
What is a logical form? This is the best way to connect meaningful parts of reasoning. That is, a sequential chain: object, research, proof, conclusion. The name emphasizes the interest of the form of reasoning only, and not the specific content of the subject being studied.

Essence of logic
It should be noted that the main function (it is also the goal) of logic throughout the entire time of its existence remained unchanged. It is a study of the sequence and relationship by which one statement can lead to another. By studying cause and effect relationships, this science shows the conditions right thinking. And if the goal of logic has remained unchanged and stable for many years, then the sphere of interests has undergone significant changes.

So why do we need logic?

This science helps each person to see the effect and find its primary source. Strive for knowledge of the world through thought processes. Explore and find something new and unknown.