Labor is the basic and indispensable condition of human existence. Thanks to labor, man stood out from the animal kingdom. Unlike animals, man creates his own world, and creates it with his own labor. The environment created by man, the conditions of his existence are actually the result of joint labor.

In the process of labor, material and spiritual values ​​are created, designed to meet the needs of members of society. This allows us to single out the satisfaction of needs as the first and most important social function of labor, with which the social existence of a person begins.

The economic development of society is based on the production of material values, which is possible only thanks to the purposeful creative activity of people. In the process of labor, a person, with the help of means of labor, causes pre-planned changes in the object of labor, i.e. living labor, materialized in the material, thereby changes this material. All three moments of the production process: material, instrument of labor and labor merge into a neutral result - the product of labor. Labor in such general view is nothing but the eternal, natural condition human life. It is independent of any particular organization. In any socio-economic formation and political structure of society, labor retains its importance as a factor in social production.

Economic theory distinguishes three factors of production: land, labor and capital. Moreover, production as such is only possible if land and capital are united with labour. Only in progress labor activity natural and material resources are transformed into material values. Without labor, land and capital lose their importance as factors of production.

Labor is recognized as the dominant factor and differs from the other two by the active nature of the impact on the material substance and the presence of a human, personal principle. Labor activity is carried out by people, and therefore labor bears the imprint of socio-historical conditions.

The improvement of production also occurs to a large extent due to labor, an increase in its productivity, and the complication of its content. Labor has a significant impact on the general performance indicators of organizations, including the level of profit. Ultimately, the well-being of the employer, the economy, society as a whole depends on the efficiency of labor.

Labor, forming social wealth, underlies everything community development. As a result of labor activity, on the one hand, the market is saturated with goods, services, cultural values ​​for which a certain need has already developed, on the other hand, the progress of science, technology, and production leads to the emergence of new needs and their subsequent satisfaction. In addition, scientific and technological progress ensures the growth of productivity and labor efficiency.

The significance of labor is not limited to its role in social production. Spiritual values ​​are also created in the process of labor. With the growth of social wealth, the needs of people become more complex, cultural values ​​are created, and the level of education of the population grows. Thus, labor performs the function of one of the factors of social progress and the creator of society. Ultimately, it is thanks to the division of labor that the social strata of society and the foundations of their interaction are formed.

Labor - a conscious purposeful activity to create material and spiritual benefits necessary to meet the needs of each individual and society as a whole - forms not only society, but also a person, encourages him to acquire knowledge and professional skills, to interact with other people, to complicating needs. In human nature itself, as the researchers note, the need to work as a necessary and natural condition for existence was initially laid down. Many scientists adhere to the point of view that work in itself is a source of satisfaction, which makes it possible to realize the aspirations inherent in a person for self-expression in work. The desire to work is often associated with an individual's awareness of belonging to a human community, participation in a common life, in the joint creation of one's own environment.

Among the social functions of labor, freedom-creation is also distinguished: labor manifests itself in society as “a force that paves the way for humanity to freedom (giving people the opportunity to take into account in advance the increasingly distant natural and social consequences of their actions, this function, as it were, summarizes all the previous ones, because it is in Through labor and through labor, society learns both the laws of its development and the laws of nature; therefore, other functions, as it were, “prepare” and make really feasible the freedom-creating function of labor, which is a function of the further unlimited development of mankind).

From an economic point of view, labor is the process of influencing natural and material resources. Emphasizing the dynamic essence of this social phenomenon, they speak of living labor, labor activity, the main features of which are: conscious character; connection with the creation of wealth; rationality; purposefulness; public utility.

2. Labor activity can be classified into types depending on the nature and content of labor; the subject and product of labor; means and methods of labor; working conditions.

According to the nature and content of labor, one can single out the labor of the owner of the means of production - independent and dependent labor - hired. This division, which takes into account the social nature of labor, due to the form of ownership of the means of production. In a certain sense, the social character of labor is reflected in the identification of its two organizational forms: individual and collective labor. The social nature of labor is manifested in the formation of ways to motivate labor (desire, perceived need, coercion). Accordingly, there are such types of labor as voluntary and forced.

The nature and content of labor can be considered in the structural aspect. From this point of view, two main parameters come first - the degree of intellectualization of labor and the qualification complexity of the labor function. In accordance with these parameters, it is possible to single out physical and mental labor, reproductive and creative, unskilled and skilled (highly skilled) or labor of varying degrees of complexity.

The second classification criterion - the subject and product of labor - takes into account the professional, functional and sectoral division of labor. On a professional basis, one can distinguish as many types of labor as there are professions (the work of a driver, engineer, teacher, etc.). Accounting for the functional division of labor involves the division of labor into types corresponding to the stages (stages) of production: entrepreneurial, innovative, reproductive, commercial.

In accordance with the sectoral division of labor, such types are distinguished as industrial labor (mining and processing), agricultural, construction, transport, etc.

The classification of types of labor according to the means and methods used is reduced to the allocation of manual, mechanized and automated (computerized), low-, medium- and high-tech labor.

The division of labor into types, depending on the conditions in which it is carried out, makes it possible to distinguish labor carried out in normal, harmful and dangerous conditions. You can talk about work in stationary conditions and mobile, traveling work; light, moderate and heavy, unregulated (free), regulated and strictly regulated with a forced rhythm.

The use of all four groups of features makes it possible to formulate a general description of a particular type of specific labor.

3. Labor, as can be seen from the above description, is a complex social phenomenon. Considering labor as a subject for study, several aspects are usually distinguished, which include: economic, social, psychophysiological, technical and technological, legal.

The legal aspect exists when using almost any type of labor, but this does not mean that labor law is comprehensive.

So, when it comes to independent work, i.e. labor of the owner of the means of production (farmer, individual entrepreneur etc.), it is not the labor process that is subject to legal regulation, but social relations indirectly related to labor - relations on registering an individual entrepreneur (obtaining a license to carry out a particular type of activity), on taxation, etc. Hired (non-independent) labor also far from always regulated by labor legislation: it can be carried out on the basis of civil labor contracts. In this case, the relations arising from the result of labor are subject to regulation.

Scope labor law is only that part of hired (non-independent) labor that is associated with a special kind of social relation arising from the process of labor (labor activity) - the labor relation.

Introduction

Throughout the history of the development of our society, much attention has been constantly paid to enhancing the role of the teacher, improving the training of teaching staff, including teachers. labor training, currently technology teachers.

The technology teacher prepares students for independent working life in a market economy, for creative work; develops their skills and abilities.

Caring for a person with his growing material and cultural needs serves as the main guideline for the economic and social development of the country. The people's well-being will have to be raised to a qualitatively new level, the whole range of living conditions of Russian citizens, including the consumption of goods and services, will be improved. The country is consistently implementing measures to improve consumer services for the population. More and more private enterprises for the manufacture and repair of clothing are opening. The population needs such personnel, as aesthetic, constructive, ergonomic and technological requirements to clothes from year to year increase. New fabrics, cushioning and other materials appear, which requires high qualifications from specialists in this field.

The purpose of the course work is to characterize technology as an educational field.

To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks:

1. To study the methodological and psychological and pedagogical literature on this topic.

2. Analyze the literature on this issue.

3. Draw conclusions on the topic of the course work.

Labor as a social category

Labor and the development of society

Labor - necessary condition existence and development of any society and the most important activity for the formation of personality.

Labor is, first of all, a process that takes place between man and nature, a process in which man, through his own activity, mediates, regulates and controls the metabolism between himself and nature. Thus, labor is a conscious and purposeful activity of a person to transform nature to meet their growing needs. The relationship of man to nature is always carried out in a system of relations with other people. Features of labor activity have a decisive influence on the formation of the psyche and moral ideas of a person. Even the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates stated: “Idleness and doing nothing entail depravity, on the contrary, striving for something brings with it cheerfulness, eternally directed towards strengthening life.” The great Russian writer N. L. Tolstoy wrote: “Nothing like labor ennobles a person, without labor a person cannot maintain his human dignity.” Labor activity is aimed at making a product useful to society. Another important feature is its purposeful nature. This is understood as the awareness by those doing the work of the connection that exists between individual labor practices and the operations performed by him, and those final results, to the achievement of which the labor activity of a person is directed.

Labor activity for a person is a natural physiological need. It, like any activity, requires a wide variety of movements and muscle efforts that are controlled nervous system. Mental processes are also associated with the physiological activity of the body. In work, a person experiences a sense of joy, moral satisfaction, interest, enthusiasm, the desire to achieve a goal, aesthetic satisfaction. In the process of labor, a person also thinks, imagines, feels, remembers. Every job needs attention.

The great importance of labor in the life of society and man explains the interest that people have long shown in the study and organization of their labor activity.

In the Middle Ages, one can hardly speak of the study of labor activity, it was rather an empirical improvement of labor movements and skills that reached a high degree of perfection in small groups of artisans.

Man and human society emerged in the course of employment. What is labor, how did labor arise, how did the formation of a person take place, what forms does labor take in various socio-economic formations, the future of labor - these are the range of questions that need to be answered.

The labor process includes 3 mandatory elements: 1. Purposeful human activity, or labor itself. 2. The subject of labor. 3. Means of labor.

The object of labor is everything to which human labor is directed. It can either be an object directly given by nature, for example, a blank that is to be processed on a lathe to give it the necessary shape, or a plant fiber, during the processing of which a fabric is obtained.

The means of labor are all those things, objects with the help of which a person acts on the object of labor and modifies it. The means of labor include the instruments of production, as well as industrial buildings, warehouses, roads.

The most important role belongs to the tools of production, with the help of which a person acts directly on the object of labor - from the stone tools of primitive man to modern machines.

Socio-economic epochs differ in the level of development of the instruments of production, which serves as a measure of man's power over nature. They differ primarily in how they are produced, and not in what is produced.

The object of labor and the means of labor in their totality constitute the means of production.

The instruments of production, with the help of which material goods are produced, and the people who set these instruments in motion and create material values ​​thanks to certain experience and labor habits, constitute the productive forces of society.

The working masses are the main productive force of society at all stages of its development. Each historical moment in the life of society is ultimately determined by the productive forces it has at its disposal.

However, people do not produce material goods alone, not in isolation, but together (they enter into certain connections and relationships, and only within the framework of these social connections and relationships does their relationship to nature exist, production takes place).

These specific connections and relations of people in the process of production of material goods constitute relations of production. The nature of production relations shows who owns and disposes of the main means of production (land, forests, subsoil, water, raw materials, production tools, production buildings, etc.) - at the disposal of the whole society or at the disposal of individuals, groups, classes .

The emergence of man refers to the beginning of the Quaternary period in the history of the earth, which lasted a little less than 1 million years. The problem of the emergence and development of labor is inextricably linked with the problem of the emergence of man. In the process of expedient labor activity, an object is obtained that is different from the object of labor. The process of labor exists ideally in the head of the worker, and what actually results is planned in advance as a goal. Consequently, human labor activity is an expedient conscious activity for the transformation of nature.

A person can perform his labor activity only in society. The labor of an individual component social labor. By joining labor, a person becomes a creator of history, improves everything that was left to him by previous generations of workers, and, like a baton, passes on what has been achieved to the future generation of our land. Thus, labor becomes the real embodiment of human immortality.

The role of labor is also great in the development of the individual. People have long noticed and began to use labor as the most important means of educating the younger generation. Labor begins with the manufacture of tools. The ability to make tools and use them was passed from adults to children. This transfer was carried out in the direct communication of children with adults by attracting children to the feasible participation in the labor processes performed by adults. Gradually, the deliberate influence of adults on children was added to this in order to teach them some business, to transfer the information and skills necessary for this. But even in these cases, education and upbringing were still directly connected with labor.

Later, when the development of production created a need for people with certain training, a school arose - an educational institution specially designed for the organized education and training of the younger generation.

In a class society, mental labor was separated from physical labor. And this led to the creation of two separate systems of education: general theoretical, divorced from labor activity, and industrial, practical, divorced from truly scientific knowledge. General secondary education, which was available only to children of the privileged strata of the population, acquired a purely verbal character, while vocational education, intended for the children of working people, armed them mainly with handicraft labor skills and provided a very meager stock of general educational knowledge.

Progressive thinkers and educators long ago raised their voices of protest against the separation of upbringing and education from labor and put forward the idea of ​​a labor school. For the first time this idea was expressed by representatives of early utopian socialism (T.Mor, T.Campanella), who in their projects for organizing an ideal society of the future provided for the participation of all its members in productive labor and put forward the requirement to prepare the entire rising generation for work.

Later, J.-J. Rousseau and Pestalozzi, R. Owen, C. Fourier, A. Saint-Simon, and in Russia - V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev.

The importance and significance of labor training, and approaches to its teaching were considered by such classics pedagogical sciences, as Ya. A. Comenius, I. G. and K. D. Ushinsky.

In the Soviet and post-Soviet times, general issues of the methodology of labor training were considered by P. R. Atutov, S. Ya. Batyshev, V. M. Kazakevich, V. A. Kalnei, A. S. Lynda, V. A. Polyakov, V. D Simonenko, Yu. S. Stolyarov, D. A. Tkhorzhevsky, Yu. L. Khotuntsev and other scientists.

All previous types of societies were united in sociology under the general name "working society". “The “working society” is such an order in which all other dimensions of life are more or less directly related to productive activity; education is preparation for a profession, free time- rest for the resumption of work, resignation - a well-deserved reward for working life.

A working society is a society in which productive labor is at the same time a source of life support, a solid basis for conferring social rights, social status, as well as a basis for self-esteem and a condition for self-respect. Industrial societies that have relied on economic growth have given rise to corresponding patterns of social practice, social roles, institutions, values. However, there are now more and more voices claiming that this practice is outdated.

There have been changes that really give the right to say that the role of labor in modern societies has changed in a most serious way. Speech, of course. it is not about the end of labor in the literal sense of the word, it is about the fact that the sphere of production activity has ceased to play the defining and dominant role that it played before. Accordingly, the theme of labor as such is no longer central, it no longer has that sociological and cultural significance that polarizes and defines all other topics. The topic of labor remains in the economy, but not. in sociology and culture.

The economic progress of recent decades has led to a high rise in the standard of living and a qualitative change in the standard of living. This led to an increase in the autonomy of the individual and the importance of dimensions of life far from labor. It is increasingly recognized that people need. rest and. education not only for professional activities, but also so that they can meet the requirements of Life outside of work.

Despite the difference in approaches and theoretical attitudes, various researchers, comprehending the labor society and the specifics of the observed historical transition, identify several characteristic processes and phenomena. The combination of these phenomena constitutes the concept of the “end of the working society”, most fully developed by Klaus Offe.

The labor society, according to Offe, in general coincides with the industrial society, i.e. a society based on the primacy of the industrial sphere. Therefore, the end of the working society means that “the labor and position of workers in the process of production are no longer regarded as the main organizing principle of social structures; the dynamics of social development are not seen as arising from conflicts over control industrial production; the optimization of technical-organizational relations or economic means and ends through industrial capitalist rationality is no longer seen as a form of rationality that will lead to further social development.”

Confirmation of the theses of K. Offe can be seen in real social reality, in sociological studies. The sphere of labor appears as “constituted from the outside”, and industrial sociology appears as a special area of ​​applied research. That the world of work is no longer an area that completely determines public consciousness and action are confirmed by studies of behavior in elections and political activity in general: indicators of socioeconomic status determine this behavior to a lesser extent than even belonging to a particular religion or confession. In studies of social and political conflicts, it is no longer about labor and capital, but about management.

We emphasize that the thesis, according to which it is not the sphere of labor and production that constitutes society, but, on the contrary, this sphere of labor itself acts as “constituted from the outside”, in fact, meant the end of the dominance of the “labor paradigm” in the approach to society and the formation of a new one - the paradigm of the information society.

Work- this is an activity aimed at human development and the transformation of natural resources into material, intellectual and spiritual benefits. Such activities can be carried out either by coercion, or by internal motivation, or both.

Sociological functions of labor:

Socio-economic function consists in the impact of subjects of labor (workers) on objects and elements natural environment(resources) in order to transform them into objects to meet the needs of members of society, that is, into material goods and services.

productive function is to satisfy people's need for creativity and self-expression. Thanks to this function of labor, new objects and technologies are created.

social structuring function labor is to differentiate and integrate the efforts of people involved in the labor process. On the one hand, assignment to different categories of participants labor process various functions leads to differentiation and the creation of specialized types of labor. On the other hand, the exchange of the results of labor activity leads to the establishment of certain links between different categories of participants in the labor process. Thus, this function of labor contributes to the creation of socio-economic ties between different groups of people.

social control function labor is due to the fact that labor organizes a complex system of social relations, regulated by values, norms of behavior, standards, sanctions, etc., which are a system of social control labor relations. It includes labor legislation, economic and technical standards, charters of organizations, job descriptions, informal norms, a certain organizational culture.

socializing function labor activity is connected with the fact that labor activity expands and enriches the composition of social roles, patterns of behavior, norms and values ​​of workers, which allows people to feel like full participants public life. This function gives people the opportunity to acquire a certain status, to feel social belonging and identity.

Social development function labor is manifested in the impact of the content of labor on workers, teams and society as a whole. This is due to the fact that as the means of labor develop and improve, the content of labor becomes more complex and updated. This process is due to the creative nature of man. Thus, there is an increase in the requirements for the level of knowledge and qualifications of employees in almost all sectors of the modern economy. The function of employee training is one of the priority functions of personnel management in a modern organization.

Social stratification function labor is a derivative of social structuring and is related to the fact that the results various kinds labor differently rewarded and valued by society. Accordingly, some types of labor activity are recognized as more, while others are less important and prestigious. Thus, labor activity contributes to the formation and maintenance of the dominant system of values ​​in society and performs the function of ranking participants in labor activity according to ranks - the steps of the stratification pyramid and the ladder of prestige.

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that labor activity determines a number of interrelated social and economic phenomena and processes in modern society. The study allows you to identify the most effective ways to manage the organization.

The main categories of labor science

• complexity of work;
• professional suitability of the employee;
• the degree of autonomy of the worker.

The first sign of the content of labor is complexity. It is clear that the work of a scientist is more difficult than the work of a turner, and the work of a store manager is the work of a cashier. But in order to justify the measure of payment for various types of labor, their comparison is required. To balance complex and simple labor use the concept of "reduction of labor". Labor reduction- this is the process of reducing complex labor to simple labor in order to determine the measure of remuneration for labor of varying complexity. With the development of society, the proportion of complex labor increases, which is explained by the increase in the level of technical equipment of enterprises and the requirements for the education of employees.

Differences between complex work and simple work:

• performance by the employee of such mental labor functions as planning, analysis, control and coordination of actions;
• concentration of active thinking and purposeful concentration of the worker;
• consistency in making decisions and actions;
• accuracy and adequate response of the worker's body to external stimuli;
• fast, dexterous and diverse labor movements;
• responsibility for performance.

The second sign of the content of labor is professional suitability. Its influence on the results of labor is due to the abilities of a person, the formation and development of his genetic inclinations, good choice professions, conditions for the development and selection of personnel. play an important role in professional selection special methods determination of professional suitability.

The third sign of the content of labor is degree of employee independence- depends both on external restrictions associated with the form of ownership, and internal, dictated by the scale and level of complexity of the work. Reducing restrictions on decision making while increasing the measure of responsibility means greater freedom of action, creativity and the possibility of an informal approach to solving problems. The independence of an employee is a criterion for the level of self-awareness of a developed personality, its measure of responsibility for the results of work.

The nature of labor as a category of labor science represents the relationship between the participants in the labor process, which affect both the employee's attitude to work and labor productivity. From the point of view of the nature of labor, on the one hand, the work of an entrepreneur is distinguished, and, on the other hand, wage labor, collective or individual. Entrepreneur's labor is characterized by a high degree of independence in decision-making and its implementation, as well as a high degree of responsibility for the results. hired labor- this is the work of an employee called upon, under the terms of an agreement, to perform official duties in relation to the employer.

Modern labor science

modern science on labor includes a number of basic disciplines:

1. traditionally includes problems of productivity and labor efficiency, labor resources, labor market and employment, income and wages, headcount planning, problems of labor rationing.
2. Personnel economics examines the behavior of employees when they perform official duties. The discipline studies the influence of various factors on labor productivity.
3. Occupational medicine- examines work-related factors that may cause injury, illness or other harm to the health of the worker.
4. Physiology of labor explores the functions of the human body in the process of labor: the physiology of the motor apparatus, the development and training of labor skills, performance and its regulation, sanitary and hygienic working conditions, the severity of labor.
5. Labor psychology explores the requirements for the human psyche associated with his attitude to work.
6. Personnel Management studies the problems of headcount planning, selection, training and certification of personnel, labor motivation, management styles, relationships in labor collectives, management procedures.
7. Sociology of labor studies the impact of workers on society and vice versa - society on the worker.
8. Labor Pedagogy how science considers the issues of employee training.
9. Ergonomics studies the organization of the process of adapting the means of labor to the characteristics, possibilities and limits of the human body.
10. labor management studies the basics of designing the labor processes of workplaces. Issues such as identifying the need for personnel, recruiting and selecting personnel, engaging employees, releasing them, developing, controlling personnel, i.e. management, coordination and communication structuring of work, remuneration policy, participation in success, personnel cost management and employee management.
11. Safety explores a set of problems related to ensuring safe labor activity.
12. labor law analyzes the complex of legal aspects of labor and management. This is especially important in hiring and firing, developing systems of rewards and punishments, solving property problems, and managing social conflicts.

Fundamentals of modern labor economics

labor economics- studies economic patterns in the field of labor relations, including specific forms of manifestation of the essence of labor, such as organization, payment, efficiency and employment.

object study labor economics labor is a purposeful human activity aimed at creating material wealth and providing services.

The subject of labor economics- socio-economic relations that develop in the labor process under the influence of various factors - technical, organizational, personnel and other.

aim labor economics are studies in the field of human resource management.

home a task labor economics - the study of the essence and mechanisms of economic processes in the sphere of labor in the context of human life and society.

Ways to improve the efficiency of labor activity

One of the most important elements of increasing the efficiency of human labor activity is the improvement of skills and abilities as a result of labor training. From a psychophysical point of view, industrial training is a process of adaptation and a corresponding change in the physiological functions of the human body for the most effective performance of a particular job. As a result of training, muscle strength and endurance increase, the accuracy and speed of working movements increase, and physiological functions recover faster after work is completed.

Rational organization of the workplace

Rational organization (ensuring a comfortable posture and freedom of labor movements, the use of equipment that meets the requirements of ergonomics and engineering psychology) provides the most effective, reduces fatigue and prevents the risk of occupational diseases. Besides, workplace must meet the following requirements: sufficient working space; sufficient physical, auditory and visual connections between man and machine; optimal placement of the workplace in space; allowable level actions of harmful production factors; availability of means of protection against hazardous production factors.

Comfortable working posture

A comfortable working posture of a person in the process of labor activity ensures high working capacity and labor productivity. A comfortable working posture should be considered one in which the worker does not need to lean forward more than 10-15 degrees; tilting back and to the sides is undesirable; The main requirement for a working posture is a straight posture.

The formation of a working posture in the “sitting” position is influenced by the height of the working surface, which is determined by the distance from the floor to the horizontal surface on which the labor process is performed. The height of the working surface is set depending on the nature, severity and accuracy of the work. A comfortable working posture when working “sitting” is also provided by the design of the chair (size, shape, area and inclination of the seat, height adjustment).

High working capacity and vital activity of the body are supported by a rational alternation of periods of work and rest.

Rational mode of work and rest

Rational mode of work and rest- this is such a ratio and content of periods of work and rest, in which high labor productivity is combined with high and stable human performance without signs of excessive fatigue for a long time. Such an alternation of periods of work and rest is observed at various periods of time: during a work shift, day, week, year in accordance with the operating mode of the enterprise.

The duration of rest during the shift (regulated breaks) depends mainly on the severity of the work and the conditions for its implementation. When determining the duration of rest during working hours, it is necessary to take into account the following production factors that cause fatigue: physical effort, nervous tension, pace of work, working position, monotony of work, microclimate, air pollution, aeroionic composition of air, industrial noise, vibration, lighting. Depending on the strength of the influence of each of these factors on the human body, the time for rest is set.

The intra-shift regime of work and rest should include a lunch break and short breaks for rest, which should be regulated, since it is more effective than breaks that occur irregularly, at the discretion of the employee.

Short rest breaks are designed to reduce the fatigue that develops in the process of work.. The number and duration of short-term breaks are determined based on the nature of the labor process, the degree of intensity and severity of labor. The points of decrease in working capacity serve as a guideline for establishing the beginning of breaks for rest. To prevent its decline, a break for rest is appointed before the onset of fatigue of the body. In the second half of the working day, due to deeper fatigue, the number of rest breaks should be greater than in the first half of the shift. Physiologists have found that for most types of work, the optimal duration of a break is 5-10 minutes.. It is this break that allows you to restore physiological functions, reduce fatigue and maintain a working setting. With deep fatigue, it is necessary to go both along the line of increasing the number of breaks and increasing their duration. But short-term breaks lasting more than 20 minutes disrupt the already established state of working out.

Rest can be active or passive.. Active rest is recommended at work taking place in adverse conditions labor. The most effective form of active recreation is industrial gymnastics. Active rest accelerates the recovery of forces, since when changing activities, the energy expended by the working body is restored faster. As a result of industrial gymnastics, the vital capacity of the lungs increases, the activity of the cardiovascular system improves, muscle strength and endurance increase.

The concept of labor activity

Labor activity a person is a kind of his social behavior. Labor activity is a rational series of operations and functions, rigidly fixed in time and space, performed by people united in labor organizations. The labor activity of employees provides a solution to a number of tasks:

the creation of material wealth as a means of life support for a person and society as a whole;

provision of services for various purposes;

development of scientific ideas, values ​​and their applied analogues;

accumulation, conservation, processing and analysis, transfer of information and its carriers;

development of a person as an employee and as a person, etc.

Labor activity - regardless of the method, means and results - is characterized by a number of common properties:

a certain functional and technological set of labor operations;

a set of relevant qualities of labor subjects, recorded in professional, qualification and job characteristics;

material and technical conditions and spatio-temporal framework of implementation;

in a certain way, the organizational, technological and economic connection of labor subjects with the means, the conditions for their implementation;

normative-algorithmic method of organization, through which the behavioral matrix of individuals included in the production process (organizational and managerial structure) is formed.

Each type of labor activity can be divided into two main characteristics: psychophysiological content (the work of the sense organs, muscles, thought processes, etc.); and the conditions under which work is carried out. The structure and level of physical and nervous loads in the process of labor activity are determined by these two characteristics: physical - depend on the level of automation of labor, its pace and rhythm, design and rationality of the placement of equipment, tools, equipment; nervous - due to the volume of processed information, the presence of industrial danger, the degree of responsibility and risk, the monotony of work, relationships in the team.

Thus, in general, we can talk about a reduction in motor components and an increase in the importance of the mental component of labor activity. In addition, the NTP creates technical prerequisites for the withdrawal of the employee from the zone of industrial hazards and dangers, improves the protection of the performer, and frees him from heavy and routine work.

However, an excessive decrease in motor activity turns into hypodynamia. The growth of nervous loads can lead to injuries, accidents, cardiovascular and neuropsychiatric disorders. An increase in the speed and power of equipment can lead to inconsistency in the parameters of its operation and the ability of a person to react and make decisions. New technologies often lead to the emergence of new production hazards and hazards, negative impact on the environment.

The problem is to "tie" technology to human capabilities, to take into account its psycho-physiological characteristics at the stages of design, construction, operation of the "man-machine" system. All this determines the need to study the physiological and mental processes in human labor activity.

The role of labor in society

The history of the development of man and society testifies to the decisive role of labor in this process.

In the process of its evolution, labor became significantly more complicated: a person began to perform more complex and diverse operations, to use more and more organized means of labor, to set and achieve higher goals. Labor has become multifaceted, varied, perfect.

Under the conditions of using more advanced resources and means of labor, the organization of labor has an increasing impact on the environment, sometimes to the detriment of the environment. Therefore, the environmental aspect in labor activity acquires a new meaning.

The joint work of people is something more than the simple sum of their labor. Joint work is also considered as a progressive unity of the total results of labor. Human interaction with natural materials means of labor, as well as the relationships that people enter into in this case - all this is called production.

Features of modern labor:

The increase in the intellectual potential of the labor process, which is manifested in the strengthening of the role of mental labor, the growth of a conscious and responsible attitude of the employee to the results of his activities;

The increase in the share of materialized labor associated with the means of labor is due to the achievements of scientific and technological progress and, with limited physical capabilities of a person, serves as a decisive factor in the growth of productivity and labor efficiency;

A growing aspect of the social process. Currently, the factors of growth in labor productivity are considered not only to improve the skills of an employee or increase the level of mechanization and automation of his work, but also the state of human health, his mood, relationships in the family, team and society as a whole. This social aspect of labor relations significantly complements the material aspects of labor and plays an important role in human life.

Relationship of the sociology of labor with the labor sciences

The system of labor sciences includes many diverse and relatively independent disciplines.

Sociology of labor studies "the behavior of employers and employees in response to the action of economic and social incentives to work", the relationship of social groups in the labor process, focuses on the demographic differences of people, on differences in their education and qualifications, on the peculiarities of upbringing and political views, religion and social position.

The variety of labor sciences is due to the specifics of those labor problems that are the object of study of each of them.

Subject labor economics is a system of socio-economic relations that develop in the process of labor activity between the employer, employee and the state regarding the organization of labor. Labor economics studies the socio-economic problems of labor, the problems of ensuring the efficiency and productivity of labor on the basis of its scientific organization.

Physiology of labor how science studies the influence and mechanism of the impact of the labor process on the physiological characteristics of a person, is the scientific basis for the development of labor standards, work and rest regimes, workplace planning, and ensuring favorable working conditions.

Labor psychology studies the psychological characteristics of a person in the labor process, the attitude of a person to his work activity, it is the basis of professional training, the development of systems for motivating and stimulating the work of workers, and is a tool for managing labor conflicts.

Ergonomics is the basis for the rationalization of labor processes, since it studies human activity in its connection with technology, machines, means of production. Ergonomics optimizes human interaction with machine systems.

Occupational health, industrial sanitation and safety ensure the creation of healthy and safe working conditions at the workplace.

Demography This is the science of population, it studies the processes of reproduction of the population, its age and sex structure, the resettlement of the population in the regions of the country, which makes it possible to effectively meet the needs of enterprises in the necessary labor resources.

Personnel Management makes it possible to realize the labor potential (by selecting, training and fair remuneration of the personnel of the organization of employees), and allows you to effectively manage the organization's personnel (provided by choosing the optimal management style, developing a personnel policy, conducting personnel marketing).

Sociology of professions studies the social division of labor, the prestige of various types of labor activity, the professional suitability of a person, etc.

Labour Organization studies the formation of an orderly system of interaction between employees, their groups and departments to achieve their goals, which allows for effective connection work force with the means of production in specific conditions, the realization of the labor potential of workers and satisfies the needs of all subjects of social and labor relations.

labor law is the legal basis of labor relations. It establishes the legal norms of labor, regulates the rights and obligations of the subjects of social and labor relations, determines the differentiation in wages, serves as the basis for social policy and social protection workers.

labor statistics makes it possible to analyze labor efficiency on the basis of quantitative indicators of labor productivity, the number and dynamics of personnel, payroll, etc.

What tasks does the discipline solve

"Economics and sociology of labor"?

The main objectives of the discipline "Economics and sociology of labor" are determined by its purpose, which provides for the study of scientific foundations, theoretical, methodological provisions and practical experience in the field of human resource management - the formation and rational use of the labor potential of each person and society as a whole in the event of the emergence of new social and labor relations in a market economy.

Home set- study of the essence and mechanisms of economic and social processes in the sphere of labor in the context of human life and society. Its solution is based on the study of the methodological provisions of the economic food theory, which reveals the fundamental role of labor in the life of a person and society, as well as the economic and social characteristics of labor in specific historical conditions.

Another task- studying the factors and reserves of effective employment, the formation and rational use of labor potential, increasing the efficiency and productivity of labor. The determining prerequisites for solving this problem are, firstly, the mechanism for the implementation of Russian laws and socio-economic policy in the regulation of social and labor relations, and secondly, the study of patterns, objective and subjective factors affecting economic and social processes, the attitude of a person to work, his behavior in the team.

Another task- identification of the relationship of social and labor relations with economic relations and processes occurring in the national economy of a market type, focused on social development, as well as the relationship of the labor market with the markets of raw materials, capital, stock markets. As a result, the study of the process of the cost of labor, as well as the formation of labor costs at all stages of the reproduction cycle, is of particular importance. The expansion and deepening of knowledge in this area requires the study of foreign as well as domestic experience in various regions of the country and at various enterprises, the study of the state of internal labor markets, familiarity with the methodological methods of economic analysis, audit, and sociological research.

Social engineering is a management activity aimed at changing social systems and social institutions in accordance with a given goal using science-intensive technologies and an engineering approach. In domestic science and management practice, this term was first used at the beginning of the 20th century by the director of the Central Institute of Labor A. Gastev. In his understanding, a social engineer is the leader of a work collective, on whose activity the success of the functioning of the entire social engineering machine depends. The idea of ​​social engineering was to closely combine human complexes with the organization of machine complexes. These machine-human complexes are based on the unity of biology and engineering sciences. Soviet party and statesman, a prominent specialist in the problems of labor organization and management P.M. Kerzhentsev limited the problems of social engineering to the management of people and teams, regardless of the field of activity. He formulated a number of general principles of management - this is the establishment of the goals and objectives of the organization and management activities; development of a plan, working methods and management methods; setting up accounting and control. According to P.M. Kerzhentsev, under socialism, the main attention in management activities should have been given to the planned conduct of production and labor activities. But the leader, having real power, significantly affects the workforce and the effectiveness of its activities, therefore, the selection of leaders should be based on the compliance of his personal qualities with the requirements of the specific position for which he is applying.

Domestic social engineering of the 20-30s of the XX century was based on psychotechnics and sociological research, the traditions of which were continued after a thirty-year break by factory sociology of the 60-80s. In the theory and practice of social planning, which were further developed during the years of the Khrushchev thaw, along with the data of sociological surveys, ideological attitudes and socio-cultural standards were used. In domestic social engineering, the following principles were formulated: the principle of direct participation in solving social problems, since urgent pressing problems are being solved; the principle of continuous social engineering support and social design; the principle of technologization, that is, the provision of optimal methods of influence.

In Western sociology, socioengineering activity was considered in detail by K. Popper in his works The Poverty of Historicism (1945) and Open Society (1945). He considered social engineering as a set of applied sociological approaches aimed at rationally changing social systems based on fundamental knowledge about society and predicting the possible results of transformations.

The modern socioengineering approach makes it possible to change the social reality based on the methods of planning, programming, foresight and forecasting. Social engineering activities include the following procedures:

Assessment of the state of the object of social engineering activities;

Forecasting the most probable options for the development of the internal and external environment of the forecast object;

Modeling the future state of the research object using mathematical, cybernetic, predictive and other methods;

Development of a social project for a new state of the object under study;

Social planning in accordance with the social project;

Implementation of the project with the help of innovative social technologies.

Modern domestic social engineering is developing in the following blocks (directions):

Societal block - the construction of social institutions: state building, the creation of a modernized system of education, health care, etc.;

Regional block - formation of regional communities;

Municipal bloc - formation of local communities;

Organizational block - construction of organizations;

Block of group engineering - formation of target groups and teams.

social engineering today is a complex of practically oriented knowledge in the field of managing social structures and processes, developing in the following areas:

Construction of social institutions, for example, state building, reorganization of the higher education system, etc. ("societal" block);

Regional construction (regional block);

Formation of local communities (municipal block);

Building organizations or "organizational engineering" (organization block);

Formation of target groups and teams ("group" engineering). Electoral technologies and other ways to promote leaders or their teams are integral part all blocks of social engineering activity.

In educational practice, the ideas of social engineering are implemented through the use of modern educational technologies and active teaching methods, as well as through the “saturation” of the educational process with disciplines of the social engineering and organizational cycle, including:

theory and methods of social engineering;

diagnostics of organizations;

forecasting and modeling of the development of organizations;

organizational design and programming;

social planning;

introduction of social innovations in organizations, etc.;

workshop on social technologies;

conflict resolution methods.

The formation and development of social engineering was significantly influenced by psychology, applied anthropology, management sciences, and now synergetics and social synergetics - the science of self-organization of society, which determines the conditions and factors for the sustainable development of society. From the standpoint of social synergy in society, thanks to communication links, a synthesis of material and non-material structures takes place, and evolutionary development based on the exchange of information determines the natural selection of energetically more profitable methods of social management. This process ensures the transition of society to a qualitatively new level. From the point of view of synergetics, management is considered as an open system, which is based on interaction with the object, and not on the impact on it. The control mechanism is carried out in two directions. First, a socio-technological corridor is set that is acceptable from the point of view of the development and functioning of the social system. Within this corridor, the social system can implement various trajectories of self-development, and innovation processes are directed in a socially constructive direction. Secondly, for sustainable social development and the rise to a new level of self-organization, local influence is carried out at the bifurcation points at the right time and in the right place.

One of the options for the practical application of the synergistic approach to management is the theory of a self-learning organization that is able to create, acquire and exchange knowledge and change its behavior in accordance with new knowledge and intuition. The sources of learning are employees of the organization, external consultants, business coaches, own business, external environment and lessons learned from own practical experience. A self-learning organization in modern conditions is the most competitive, synergetics is a universal methodology of the modern information society, its structures and a socio-engineering approach to managing society. This approach places high demands on managers, as they must have modern socio-technological knowledge.

Many researchers come to the conclusion that the social engineering approach to management produces the third factor, in which contradictions in the relations between the object and the subject of management are resolved. The object of social engineering ceases to be only a means of implementing social programs developed by experts, and becomes a subject itself. A trinitarian approach is being formed - management - co-management - self-government. The social engineering approach turns management into an interactive process, and the task of social engineers is to create conditions for unlocking the internal potential of the social system.

Unfortunately, in domestic management science and practice, some wary attitude towards social engineering remains, since sometimes manufacturability is perceived as experimentation and manipulation of people. This fact is largely due to the low demand for social design of program-targeted management by subjects of management.

A systematic approach to managing the innovative development of industrial enterprises

The system approach to management of innovative development of the industrial enterprises

Introduction*

In the 21st century, the world community is facing innovative challenges associated with the development of high technologies, informatization, changes in the content of labor and the quality of the workforce. At the same time, the process of globalization generates both new forms of international cooperation and interstate relations, and new contradictions, requiring new approaches to solving political, economic and social problems at all levels of their manifestation. Coordinated development, harmonization of norms and standards of social and labor relations, exchange of accumulated experience can contribute to the construction of a highly organized, economically and environmentally efficient production. The result of efforts to stabilize production and improve the social climate within the country largely depends on the development of industrial enterprises, which are the primary cell of any economic system and can become the driving force for the innovative development of the national economy.

Theoretical approaches to substantiation of innovative development of industrial enterprises

In economic science, there are various approaches to determining the essence, meaning, foundations of the functioning and development of an enterprise:

the resource approach, according to which enterprises (organizations) survive to the extent that they acquire and maintain their resources, and the possibility of accumulating organizational-specific resources by an enterprise is the main rationale for its existence;

the system approach considers an enterprise as a highly complex open socio-economic system connected by specific relations with its external and internal environment, the main and most active element of which is a person;

the evolutionary approach is meaningfully and metamorphically connected with the evolutionary worldview on the process of constant and causal change in the activities of an enterprise, while the mechanism of change is associated with variability, inheritance and selection, where special attention is paid to the innovation process: the emergence, consolidation and dissemination of innovations, the study of competition as a process selection, problem solving information, uncertainty and time;

the neo-institutional approach analyzes the activity of an enterprise under the conditions of restrictions caused by the institutional structure of society, where enterprises, as economic agents, operate in a world of high transaction costs, under conditions of uncertainty and risk, which gives rise to limited rationality and opportunistic behavior; within the framework of neo-institutional theory, a transactional approach is singled out, which explores the reasons for the existence of a firm and the features of their internal device, focusing on the need for a firm to avoid transaction costs for concluding transactions in the market and using the advantages of cooperation to obtain the maximum result of its activities.

the process approach is one of the basic in the studies of strategic management and considers the enterprise in terms of processes associated with entrepreneurial activity, organizational renewal and growth, as well as the development and application of a strategy that directs organizational actions, based on the logic of cause-and-effect explanation , linking independent variables, on the types of concepts or variables that reflect the actions of enterprises or individuals, on the sequence of events that describe the change in phenomena over time.

behavioral approach explores the real behavior of enterprises as economic entities, whose activities are dominated not by rational, but by conventional behavior (i.e., subject to accepted rules and conventions), the analysis of which allows us to build a generalized decision-making model;

the knowledge-based approach focuses on the movement of knowledge and its impact on the efficiency and competitive advantages of enterprises, considering knowledge as subjective information, inseparable from the beliefs of the individual and purposeful action, giving great importance firms that create and develop routines, acting as knowledge repositories.

the synthetic approach means that the models of the theory of firms must take into account "technological" and "social" factors, arguing that the structure of social relations has a constant influence on the organizational dynamics of the enterprise.

The analysis of the theories of the firm makes it possible to substantiate the mechanism for managing the innovative development of industrial enterprises in the context of the clustering of the economy and to determine the main elements that ensure the interaction and cooperation of participants in the innovation process on different stages(Table 1).

Innovative development is considered as a purposeful continuous process of implementing innovations in the scientific, industrial, economic, commercial, financial, marketing, management activities of an enterprise, aimed at the fullest possible satisfaction of social needs based on the implementation of scientific achievements in the production process to obtain the maximum economic, social and environmental effect, expressed in absolute and relative change (increment) of economic indicators.