1. What industry appeared in the 19th century:

b) J. Stephenson d) G. Ford

b) K. Maxim d) Wright brothers

5. The creator of dynamite was:

a) S. Colt c) H. Shrapnel

b) K.Maxim d) A.Nobel

a) urbanization c) migration

b) emancipation d) emigration

a) a seamstress c) a photographer

b) typist d) postman

a) top hat c) three-piece suit

b) tuxedo d) cane

Textbook dialectics of a progressive line of development as a humane universal philosophy for the 21st century, Moscow 1994

abstract

… how adaptive response and how element of organization appeared… in XXI in. — century information... on circle. The more it develops which-then industry severe industry, topics … tests, … ., prepared industrial revolution, marked by ... " industrial" …
St. Petersburg, publishing house "Petersburg-xxi century", 1997

Document

… how victim of society is a concept XIX century. At the end of our centurytheme … on compared to a child industrial … how object of experience industrial … revolution. FROM which I recall with gratitude "Mademoiselle," a young Luxembourg teacher who topics …
Tests for the course "Social Studies"

Tests

… tests by … industrial policy promotes development industry … revolution. B. A variety of social revolutions — revolution... a sign industrial and … century most active." How … on this topic"Personality how … XXI… and industries 5) … What kind new powers appeared …
Test on oligophrenopedagogy 4 Test for teachers of speech therapists 7

Document

… testpo oligophrenopedagogy 4 Test for teachers - speech therapists 7 Test … XXI century … what year on the Olympic flag for the first time appeared … on many branches of industry and release industrial products has taken a leading position in the world, topics … industrial … revolution …
Methodological recommendations program general history: from ancient times to the end of the 19th century Grade 10, basic level (30 hours), profile level (58 hours)

… industrial revolution. Topic 13. Industrial society (1 h) Social consequences industrial revolution. Industrial society. Social issue. Industrialization. Lifting base industries …

The industry of post-reform Russia on the eve of industrialization

New industries emerged: transport engineering (locomotive and carriage building); coal mining and coke production; oil-extracting, processing and chemical industry; steel rail and copper rolling production; production of building materials; railway construction; production of steam engines. In 1864, the Kolomna Machine-Building Plant was founded, which produced steam locomotives. Rail rolling, locomotive building and car building plants were opened. The engine of industrialization was railway construction; his needs contributed to the development of heavy industry, energy-intensive industries and engineering. In the 1890s the first factory power plants appeared. Despite the intensive development of factory production, there were also manufacturing and handicraft enterprises. In the light and textile industries, large-scale and small-scale production reached a balance: large enterprises ensured mass production, while small and handicraft enterprises had a rich assortment and satisfied individual consumer needs.

The development of industry in the second half of the XIX century

In the 1870-1890s. Russia ranked fifth in the world and fourth in Europe in terms of industrial potential and key indicators of industrial production. Over these years, the volume of industrial production in Russia has increased many times (for example, steel smelting - 107 times, iron smelting - 4.5 times). Meanwhile, the United States rose from fourth to first place in the world in terms of industrial output, England moved from first to second, Germany from second to third, France remained in fourth place.
In the first post-reform decades, Russian industry switched to hired labor and steam power, the industrial revolution made it possible to create new advanced production. In the most advantageous position turned out to be the production, in which the civilian labor of quitrent peasants dominated even before the reform of 1861. By the end of the 1870s. the number of steam looms in the cotton industry increased by 1.6 times. Mechanical machines gave more than half of marketable products.
The position of industry remained difficult for a long time, production was built on the old technical and technological basis: steam boilers heated with peat or firewood, the range of raw materials and semi-finished products was scarce. Among ready-made cotton fabrics, simple products designed for unpretentious rural demand. At the same time, production expanded quite rapidly.
Progress in the food industry was associated with an increase in sugar production and an increase in the number of jobs for wage workers. In the 1860-1880s. sugar consumption per capita has tripled.
most challenging task was the rise of heavy industry. Technical modernization of the Ural industry, which produced in the 1880s. up to 2/3 of the metal in the country, was slow. The mechanization of production processes stretched for decades. There was practically no hot blast in blast-furnace production. Released rails quickly wore out. Old cars were constantly breaking down and in need of repair. There were not enough spare parts. Such a deplorable picture was observed at many factories in the Urals, as well as the South, Center, North-West and other regions of Russia. The low growth rates of ferrous metallurgy led to a stagnation in the development of the entire heavy industry.
In the 1860-1870s. small-scale peasant industry was widespread. Home crafts developed both in the old traditional and in the new regions of the Urals, the Volga region, and the Center. The domestic peasant industry gradually turned into a capitalist one. Handicraft commodity producers worked for buyers and manufacturers. Many artisanal establishments used hired labor. The owners of rural manufactories resorted to the most brutal forms of exploitation. Wages there were much lower than in factories and factories. The existence of rural handicraft establishments testified to the low purchasing power of the peasants. Handicrafts helped the development of large-scale capitalist industry. Peasants were cheap labor force; many villages and villages of European Russia by the end of the 1880s. turned into factory settlements, where more than 50% of all industrial workers lived.
In the first post-reform decades, a powerful fuel and energy base of industry was created. After the liquidation of the farming system in 1872, the Baku oil industry. Many oil rigs appeared on the Absheron Peninsula, in 1879 there were already more than 300 of them. After the abolition of the excise tax on kerosene, its widespread production began. By 1890, Russia's share in the world's kerosene production reached 38%. Since 1882, the technology of continuous distillation of oil has been used in oil refining, which has dramatically reduced the cost of finished products. From the mid 1870s to the end of the 1880s. oil production increased by 46.6 times. Until the end of the 1880s. the main product of the oil refining industry was kerosene, and fuel oil was almost not sold and was burned on the spot as fuel. But by the end of the century, due to the growth in demand for petroleum products, the share of kerosene in the production of petroleum products decreased by 1.7 times. In the 1890-1900s. oil production increased by another 3 times and only by 1913 decreased by 1/5.
In the 1860-1870s. the development of the Donetsk basin (Donbass) began (Fig. 19.2). Hundreds of new mines and galleries were laid here. The largest enterprise in Donbass was the South Russian Society of the Coal Industry, headed by S.S. Polyakov. In the 1870-1880s. coal and anthracite production in the South Russian mining region increased 5.5 times, and the share of Donbass in the total Russian coal production reached 42.5%.

Start of industrialization

In the second half of the 1880s. began a qualitative improvement of industry, closely associated with railway construction.
In the 1860-1870s. railways were built that connected the Center with the Volga region, the Black Sea and Baltic ports, as well as with the western borders of the Empire. Short lines were also built, which had an industrial purpose. In the 1860s-1870s. the total length of the Russian railway network increased 14 times and amounted to 21 thousand miles. Their cargo turnover was dominated by agricultural goods - primarily grain.
In the 1880s railway construction has acquired a new quality. Railways began to be built mainly to serve the interests of heavy industry.
The economic "boom" of the 1890s surpassed the figures of 1860-1870s. For 10 years (1893-1902), the length of railways almost doubled, amounting to 58 thousand km. About 2,500 km of railways were put into operation annually, four times more than in the 1880s and early 1890s. (600 km) and 2-5 times more than in the 1860s-1870s. Railways were laid to the North, to Siberia, Turkestan and Transcaucasia. In 1880-1898. the Turkestan railway was built with a length of 2.4 thousand miles. In 1891, construction began on the Great Siberian Railway (Trans-Siberian Railway) with a length of 5 thousand miles. By the beginning of the XX century. Russia in terms of the total length of railways was second only to North America, but the density of domestic roads was insufficient. In the 1880-1890s. railway construction took into account the interests of the agricultural market less. For the needs of grain transport, only a few roads were laid. Industrial were 2/3 of cargo transportation. More than 50% of industrial cargoes were products of the fuel and metallurgical industries. The Moscow railway junction became the main center of the railway network.
As in other large capitalist countries, in Russia railway construction has become the locomotive of industrialization. Railways provided the demand of metallurgical plants in the South of Russia for coking coal and increased the demand for hard coal of the Donbass, which was mined in the 1870s - the first half of the 1880s. increased by more than 7.3 times. The metallurgy of the South of Russia consumed 62.1% of the coal mined in the Donbass.
Railway construction also turned into a sphere of successful initial accumulation of capital and all sorts of machinations, with the help of which various magnates, ministers, and grand dukes grew rich.
The rapid growth of industrial production began in Russia in the second half of the 1880s. The main task was to develop our own metallurgical base, necessary for heavy industry and railway construction. In the 1880s Huge reserves of iron ore were explored in Krivoy Rog. Very high rates of iron and steel smelting in the second half of the 1880s-1890s. were accompanied by the completion of the industrial revolution - the complete technical re-equipment of industrial production. Pudding and blooming horns were replaced by Bessemer converters and open-hearth furnaces. At blast furnace plants in the South of Russia and in the Urals, new foreign equipment and technology were increasingly being used, and new powerful units were being built. From the early 1880s to the mid 1890s. Ural iron-smelting production increased almost 2.2 times. In the second half of the 1880s - early 1890s. in the Donbass, the Novorossiysk Metallurgical Plant in Yuzovka (now Donetsk) was reconstructed, it became the largest metallurgical plant in Russia. In the 1890s labor productivity at the plant increased by 2.1 times. The new plants significantly surpassed Novorossiysk in terms of their technical equipment. Thanks to the reconstruction of the industry of Donbass, in the mid-1890s. The South of Russia is ahead of the Urals in iron smelting.
AT late XIX in. the machine-building industry of Russia acquired a transport character. The production capacities of the old factories have increased significantly. Enterprises were built that provided the railways with rolling stock: the Kharkov and Lugansk steam locomotive plants in the South of Russia, as well as eight car-building plants in different parts European Russia. At the end of the XIX century. There were seven steam locomotive plants in Russia. The Kolomna plant remained the largest locomotive building enterprise. In terms of the production of steam locomotives, Russia far surpassed France, was somewhat inferior to Germany, but lagged far behind the United States. The country's needs for production machines were met through imports. Up to 60% of the equipment for the Russian textile industry was imported from England and Germany.
In the 1890s the Baku oil industry was modernized (Fig. 19.4). Kerosene lost its dominance among petroleum products, and a wide production of fuel for industrial consumption began. Fuel for steam locomotives, steamboats and factory boilers was fuel oil.
Industrial construction has increased the demand for modern Construction Materials- cement, refractory bricks, tiles, etc. From the second half of the 1880s. until the end of the 19th century. their production increased by 3.5 times.
In the 1890s modernization of the chemical industry. In 1890, on the Kama River, at the Bereznyakov salt mines, a soda plant appeared. In the same year, a plant was built in the Donbass, which became the main soda producer in Russia. The production of soda led to an increase in the production of acids and salts. By the beginning of the XX century. domestic industry almost completely satisfied the needs of the domestic market in the main chemical products. In Russia, there was also own production artificial dyes (alizarin, sulfur dyes, etc.) for the textile industry, but on imported semi-finished products. This marked the beginning of the domestic fine chemical industry, which over the years switched to semi-finished products of domestic production.
From the mid-1880s to the end of the 1890s. the number of workers in the branches of heavy industry almost doubled, the cost of manufactured products increased 2.6 times, and its total volume almost quadrupled. In 1893 a steady and rapid rise began in heavy industry. In 1885-1900. annual growth rates in heavy industry averaged 10.6% in value of output and 12.9% in volume. These were unprecedented growth rates in the entire history of Russian industry.
Less significant were in the 1890s. progress in the production of consumer goods. Demand for personal items grew slowly due to the very modest incomes of the population.
Significant changes have taken place only in some branches of the food and textile industries. In the tobacco industry, the production of cigarettes has increased, and among alcoholic beverages- beer, due to the growth in demand for these goods in cities. The confectionery industry has made great strides. More than 200 large confectionery factories employed 11.4 thousand workers. In the 1890s the sugar industry mastered the production of beet juice by diffusion, which doubled the production of sugar from beet. The growth of production in the sugar industry was closely connected with the increase in the purchasing power of the population.
Of all the branches of light industry, the textile industry developed the slowest. In the 1890s its largest industry, cotton, grew only 1.85 times. The greatest domestic demand was for cheap cotton goods. The demand of the urban population for high-quality products was satisfied by silk fabrics, the cost of which in the 1890s. almost doubled. Despite the slow growth, the textile industry hardly suffered from crises and depressions.
The key indicator of the development of capitalist industry is the concentration of production, i.e. its concentration in a small number of large enterprises. In the 1890s in the main branches of industry, the dominance of large enterprises was established. Small industries disappeared in the sugar industry. Heavy industry was dominated by large enterprises with thousands of workers. The concentration of production was combined with its combination, i.e. connection in one enterprise of different production cycles and different industries. Almost all types of fabrics were produced at large textile factories. The leading transport engineering plants were diversified and produced a wide variety of products - from steam locomotives and sea vessels to axes and shovels. Many large enterprises had auxiliary production: workshops, brick factories, land, peat extraction, etc.
In order to successfully solve the problems of financing production, many individual capitalist factories were transformed into joint stock companies with a broad composition of participants. From 1861 to 1900 number joint-stock companies increased almost 12 times, and their share capital - dozens of times; the share of equity held by industrial firms increased from 13.5% to 61.9%. Joint-stock companies had advantages in obtaining loans from commercial banks.

Lecture, abstract. The development of industry - the concept and types. Classification, essence and features.

book title open close

1. State ideology: from the official nationality to the "people's" autocracy
2. Russian government in the second half of the XIX century
3. Domestic policy at the beginning of the reign of Alexander II and the abolition of serfdom
3.1 Abolition of serfdom: Regulations of February 19, 1861 and their implementation
4. Domestic politics and the "great reforms" of the 1860s and 1870s
5. The Great Reforms of 1860-1870
5.1 Public education reforms
6. Conservative turn in the domestic policy of the government in the mid-1860s and its consequences
7. The political crisis at the turn of the 1870-1880s and the assassination of Alexander II
8. Domestic policy in the reign of Alexander III (1881-1894)
8.1 Results of the domestic policy of Alexander III
9. Foreign policy of Russia after the Crimean War (1856-1875) - overcoming international isolation and the search for allies
9.1 Central Asia and the Far East in Russia's foreign policy: expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire and demarcation with neighboring countries. Accession of Central Asia to Russia
9.2 Russian policy in the Far East in the second half of the 19th century: problems of territorial demarcation
10. Russia and the Eastern crisis of the mid-1870s. Second Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878 and its consequences.
10.1 Diplomatic Problems in the Eastern Crisis: Treaty of San Stefano and Congress of Berlin

In the first quarter of the 19th century the pace of industrial development was low, and the Russian government did not show much attention to these issues.

Features of development in the pre-reform period. prevailed small industry, represented by home industry and handicraft. home industry, that is, the processing of raw materials produced on one's own farm was more characteristic of a peasant economy - flax spinning, wool processing, felting of cloth remained typical activities for both men and women in Russian villages. The domestic industry retained its dominant importance until the middle of the 19th century. even in the most economically developed regions of the country - the central ones. Craft was more typical of cities.

Already at the beginning of the 19th century. there was a specialization of small-scale industry centers: silk production in Moscow and in villages to the east of Moscow, shoemakers in Tver, leather workers in Vologda.

large industry the beginning of the century is represented by manufactories, of which there were about 2 thousand. Manufactory worked primarily for the upper classes and the treasury, satisfied the demand of the state for iron, non-ferrous metals, guns, guns, shells, cloth, canvas, sailcloth, paper, ropes and ropes. A significant part of the production of manufactories was consumed by the city - wool, silk, glass, faience, porcelain, paper, sugar, salt, vodka. A modest part of manufactory products went to the village - salt, vodka, scarves and ribbons, some types of metal products and metal in the form of semi-finished products - for village blacksmiths.

In the first half of the 19th century there were two leading centers of large-scale industry. One of them - Ural, the center of metallurgy, which gave 4/5 of all metal products - is also becoming the center extractive industry. Here, from the 20-30s, active development of deposits of precious stones began, gold, silver and platinum mines were arranged. The dynamics of gold mining is impressive: in 1829 they mined 1 pood of gold, in 1850 - 1000 poods.

Another center of Russian industry was Moscow region, where the manufacturing and textile industries were concentrated.

The role of St. Petersburg at the beginning of the century was small, but it grew rapidly. It was near St. Petersburg, at the Alexander State Textile Manufactory, at the beginning of the century, textile looms brought from England were used, which laid the foundation for industrial revolution in Russia. The mass introduction of machines into production and the actual beginning of the industrial revolution date back to the 1930s and 1940s. Cars were brought from England, Germany, Belgium. At the same time, at the beginning of the century, they began to establish the production of their own cars, albeit on a very small scale, since imported cars were in disproportionately greater demand than domestic ones: they were cheaper and of higher quality. Nevertheless, St. Petersburg is gradually becoming the center of Russian engineering. Despite the beginning of the industrial revolution, in the middle of the 19th century. manual rather than machine labor still prevailed in the country. The most successful sectors of light industry - textile and food. Ferrous metallurgy lagged more and more behind the world level. The development of most industries was held back by the existence of a system of serfdom and the forced nature of labor in the national economy.

The end of feudalism in Russia is considered to be the peasant

form 1861

Features of development in the post-reform period. Already in the first decade after the reform, the pace of industrial development noticeably accelerated, but its level remained low in comparison with Western countries. Much was lacking for rapid growth: large capital investments, a technical base, sufficient credit resources, a network of roads and a good communication system, qualified personnel. The development of the country in the second half of the century objectively contributed to the removal of these obstacles.

Railway construction, especially intensified since the 70s. 19 century, stimulated the rapid growth of all branches of large-scale industry, in particular, ferrous metallurgy and engineering. Foreign capital was actively invested in the industry. At the end of the century, France ranked first in terms of investment volume, followed by Great Britain, Germany and Belgium. Foreign capital largely determined the development of mechanical engineering, metallurgical and electrical industries.

Light industry developed rapidly, employing more than half of all workers. The brake on the development of the light and food industries, as before, was the insufficient demand of the population - low in conditions of largely subsistence farming. The pace of development of ferrous metallurgy accelerated: at the end of the 19th century. Russia ranked fourth in the world in iron smelting after the USA, England and Germany.

The pace of industrial development of the country in the post-reform period was extremely uneven rises were replaced by slow development and crises. So, the end of the 70s was unsuccessful, but from the end of the 80s an industrial boom began, which continued until the end of the 90s. For a decade - from 1887 to 1897. the number of industrial enterprises increased by more than 25%, and the number of workers - by 60%. In 1889, an economic crisis began in the country, which manifested itself most of all in heavy industry: the production of rails, steam locomotives, wagons was sharply reduced, almost half of all domains and oil wells stopped.

The territorial distribution of industry was also uneven: the most important regions with rapid progressive development were St. Petersburg (the center of mechanical engineering) and the Moscow region (the center of the textile industry). The Urals still remained a major center, but in the second half of the century it experienced significant difficulties caused by a backward technical base and lack of labor force. There were areas that were practically undeveloped industrially and acted as suppliers of raw materials - primarily the eastern and southeastern territories. It should also be borne in mind that about a fifth of all industrial output was produced in the western part of the empire - Poland, the Baltic states and Finland.

So, at the end of the 19th century. Russia had high rates of industrial development, but in terms of its level of development it lagged far behind the advanced countries of the world, which surpassed Russia in per capita output by more than ten times. Mechanical engineering in Russia was underdeveloped and the industrial revolution was far from over.

Leading modes of transport. Historically, the first mode of transport of economic importance was water. By the beginning of the 19th century. the country had ten channels, which was clearly not enough for the rapid development of the national economy. Start steamship service in Russia belongs to the pre-reform period. The first steamboat was built in 1813, in 1843 the freedom of shipping on all rivers was allowed, in the middle of the century there were already more than 300 steamboats in the country, and in 1895 - 2539 steamboats.

The most important mode of transport was horse-drawn, which, however, was not very convenient, since the time for transporting goods on dirt roads was limited almost exclusively in winter and summer; spring and autumn were completely excluded due to muddy roads. highway roads were built in Russia extremely slowly: in the middle of the 19th century. their length barely exceeded 8 thousand km, and were concentrated mainly around three cities - St. Petersburg, Moscow and Warsaw.

.Railway construction began in Russia in the 1930s. In 1838, the country's first railway was built, connecting St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo and not of great economic importance. In 1851 the Moscow-Petersburg road was built. In the middle of the century, the length of railway lines was about 1500 km (for comparison: in England 10 times more, and the territory of England was almost 100 times smaller than the territory of the Russian Empire).

In 1857, the Main Joint-Stock Company was established for the construction of railways and the principles of railway policy were outlined. The most important strategic task was the construction of those roads that were supposed to connect grain-growing provinces with domestic markets. On the next step it was necessary to connect the producing regions with ports by roads in order to expand the possibilities of marketing agricultural products abroad. In the 70s, a network of lines was opened, connecting Moscow and the black earth center. In the 1990s, railway construction on the outskirts of the empire - in Siberia, Central Asia, on Far East. The highest rates of railway construction were noted in 1895 - 1900: Russia surpassed practically all other countries of the world in this indicator. However, in terms of network density, it still lagged far behind the advanced countries of the world; in Russia, there were 1.5 km of railway lines per thousand square kilometers, in England - 106 km.

1History of the world economy. Moscow: Unity, 1999.

2History of the world economy. Book one. - M., 1997.- p.164

XIX century: the crisis of feudal relations and the emergence of the foundations of the capitalist economy.

The main features of economic development. In the last decades of the existence of serfdom, Russia entered a period of crisis for the entire feudal system. The disintegration of feudalism has reached the stage at which the existing feudal social relations (and above all serfdom) interfered with the further development of the productive forces, hindered the development of industry, Agriculture, culture. The feudal formation was replaced by a more progressive social system - capitalism.

Industry development. In the first half of the XIX century. the dominant forms of industrial development in Russia were small-scale production and manufactory, but factories were already emerging. The craft continued to develop both in the city and especially in the countryside.

The village of Ivanovo and the city of Shuya in the Vladimir province grew into large centers of the cotton industry, the inhabitants of the village of Kimry in the Tver province specialized in shoemaking, the village of Pavlovo in the Nizhny Novgorod province was famous for metal products, handicraftsmen in the Kostroma and Yaroslavl provinces wove linen.

Handicraft production was an important prerequisite for the development of industrial enterprises. There was a stratification of property among the handicraftsmen: on the one hand, the rich stood out, who started large enterprises, on the other hand, the mass of handicraftsmen became poorer, lost their independence, became hired workers.

The main form of large-scale industrial production in Russia at that time was manufactory. In the first half of the century, the landlord's manufactory, based on serf labor, continued to exist, but its development, in contrast to the previous time, was sharply reduced. More rapidly developed enterprises based on hired labor - capitalist manufactories. The total number of industrial enterprises increased significantly. If in 1800 there were 1,200 large industrial enterprises and they employed 225,000 workers, then in 1850 there were already 2,800 enterprises with more than 700,000 workers. Industrially advanced enterprises based on hired labor mainly grew. By 1860, in the manufacturing industry, civilians already accounted for over 80% of the total number of workers, and in all industries - 65%. The number of patrimonial and possession manufactories was steadily declining. The mining industry of the Urals, based on serf labor, experienced stagnation and did not give any significant increase in production. This happened because serf forced labor was not very productive even in the conditions of the 19th century. did not meet the needs of production: the peasants worked under duress, they did not have the technical skills necessary for a given level of industrial development. The serf workers worked mainly in the winter, and in the summer they cultivated the land, since the main source of life for such workers was still the land, the management of their household.

In 1840, the owners of the possessory enterprises achieved the publication of a law, according to which they received the right to release the workers attached to these enterprises. By 1860, there were almost no sessional workers.

Development small-scale production and manufactory was a necessary prerequisite for the transition to factory, machine production.

The beginning of the industrial revolution. The use of machines in Russian industry began in the first decades of the 19th century. However, there were still few machine tools and machines, and their use was episodic. It was only in the 1930s that machines began to be introduced more widely into industrial production. Manufactory with its manual labor was transformed into a capitalist factory based on the use of machines. In Russia, the prerequisites for an industrial revolution were ripening.

Especially importance had the introduction of steam engines into industry, which replaced the primitive horse traction and water engines. The use of these complex machines immediately greatly increased the power and productivity of the enterprises themselves. It entailed the expansion of industrial production and the improvement of its technical equipment. The most advanced in technical terms were cotton production and other branches of the textile industry, which were quickly equipped with machines. By the beginning of the 60s, there were already several thousand mechanical looms and about 2 million mechanical spinning spindles in Russia. A new method of processing beets using special apparatus driven by a steam engine led to the rapid development of the sugar beet industry.

The appearance of enterprises changed: instead of small scattered workshops, large factory buildings began to grow, and the old centers of handicraft industry take on the appearance of cities.

Initially, machines were brought from abroad, but already at the end of the 40s, the construction of domestic machine-building plants began, mainly in St. Petersburg and Moscow. In Sormov (near Nizhny Novgorod) a large steamship building plant was built. The introduction of machines contributed to an increase in labor productivity by tens and hundreds of times.

But the industrial revolution, in addition to the technical side, also had a social one. Technical revolution, i.e. The introduction of machines led to profound social changes: the machine required a new type of entrepreneur and a new type of worker. The process of formation of classes in bourgeois society - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat - went much faster.

The proletariat was formed from ruined handicraftsmen and peasants who had lost touch with agriculture.

However, the economic development of Russia lagged far behind the economic development of the advanced capitalist countries. The industrial revolution was slow and dragged on for several decades: starting in the 30s of the 19th century, it ended after the abolition of serfdom (in the 80s). The fortress system hampered the development of industry. Capital for the establishment of machine production was still insufficient. Merchants still preferred to invest their money in trade, and wealthy peasants could open their businesses only in the name of the landowner, who appropriated a significant part of the income. The free labor market necessary for capitalist industry did not yet exist. There were few non-serfs, free workers. In most cases, the workers were hired by serfs, released by the landowner to work. They were forced to give a significant part of their earnings to the landowner in the form of dues. The landowner could return them to the village at any time, which led to labor turnover and adversely affected production. The domestic market for manufactured goods was narrow, as the purchasing power of the population was very low. The people were not only poor, but their entire economy was still largely natural in nature: the peasants consumed what they produced on their farm.

Growth of domestic and foreign trade. However, the natural nature of the economy, characteristic of feudalism, was steadily destroyed. In the first half of the XIX century. continued to develop the all-Russian market.

For half a century specific gravity the urban population has doubled. In the middle of the XIX century. townspeople already accounted for about 8% of the total population of Russia (at the end of the 18th century - 4%). The growth of cities and the deepening of the economic specialization of certain regions of the country, which began as early as the 18th century, accelerated the development of domestic trade. Thus, the industrial center of Russia with its large cities, factories and factories, the number of which was constantly growing, exchanged goods with the agricultural regions of the south and southeast of the country. More and more stores and shops appeared in the cities, which became the main form of trade. On the outskirts, in provincial towns, large fairs sprang up. The Nizhny Novgorod fair with its million turnover made a grandiose impression on contemporaries. Merchants from all over Russia and from abroad came here. Irbitskaya, Rostovskaya, Kharkivskaya, Kontraktovaya (in Kyiv) and Root (30 km from Kursk) fairs also played an important role. In many cities of Ukraine, Siberia and Transcaucasia, new fairs of local importance arose.

Trade and merchant profits remained the main sphere for the formation of large capitals in Russia, on the basis of which enterprises of the capitalist type were created.

The activation of the processes of primitive accumulation of capital took place during this period not only due to the natural process of stratification of commodity producers, but also due to the intensification of usury, and especially due to the so-called “wine farms”. Government supplies and wine farming turned out to be a gold mine for the merchants. For the purchase of wine, tax-farmers were given annually up to 35 million rubles. In 1857-1858. its sales were estimated at 180-200 million rubles. According to official figures, net profit was significantly higher.

In 1806, the Russian government issued the first domestic government loan. the payment of interest contributed to the enrichment, first of all, of the privileged nobility and a certain part of the merchant class.

Foreign trade grew steadily. Mostly agricultural goods were exported from Russia: flax, hemp, lard, bread. Industrial goods, mainly textiles and products of the metalworking industry, were supplied by Russian merchants only to even more backward countries: to Central Asia, Iran, and Turkey. Mostly industrial products were imported into Russia: machines, woolen and silk fabrics, paints, as well as sugar and tea.

Trade policy remained protectionist, albeit inconsistent. The tariff of 1816 was “free-trade”, and from 1823 it was protectionist again. In 1808, duty-free importation of equipment was allowed, and from 1811 - raw materials not produced in Russia.

Foreign trade for thirty years has increased by about 2.5 times. The growth of trade contributed to the enrichment of the emerging Russian bourgeoisie.

However, the level of development of trade and its forms were still backward. Permanent store and shop trade was poorly developed, and even then only in large cities. There was no regular trade in the village. Ofeni, small merchants of haberdashery and manufactory, operated here. The poor ofeni (peddlers, walkers) carried all their goods on their hands (in a box), the more affluent had carts.

The development of trade was hampered by the lack of good ways messages. The main types of roads were highways and dirt roads, and there were few of those, and the main mode of transport was a supply.

However, in the development of communications in the first half of the XIX century. significant changes took place. River transport developed, though mainly with manual traction (with the help of barge haulers), at the beginning of the century the network of canals was expanded, and the length of highways increased.

The emergence of river shipping was of great importance in the development of trade. The first steamboat appeared on the Neva in 1815, but it was only in the 1940s and 1950s that steamboats began to regularly sail along the Neva, Volga, Dnieper and other rivers. By 1850 there were about 100 steamships in Russia.

Railway construction began in the 1930s. In the early 1930s, remarkable inventors, serf craftsmen, father and son E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs built the first railway (with steam traction) at the Nizhny Tagil plant. In 1837, a 25-verst railway from St. Petersburg to Tsarskoe Selo was built, and in 1843, construction began on a railway between St. Petersburg and Moscow. It lasted until 1852 and was very expensive. Then the construction of the Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod road and other directions began. By 1861, the total length of the roads built was one and a half thousand miles, which is 15 times less than in England. Many Russian industrialists were given large government orders for sleepers, rails, steam locomotives, technical oils, building materials, metal structures for bridges, station equipment, communications equipment, and so on. This, as a super-multiplier and accelerator, caused industrial demand along the chain for products of the construction, light, food industries, and agricultural products. Additional jobs were created in the construction, maintenance and supply of railways.

Changes in agriculture. Agriculture, dominated by landlordism and serf exploitation, developed extremely slowly. However, there were changes here too. The sown area has expanded significantly both in the European part of Russia and in Siberia: untouched virgin lands, meadows were plowed up, forest areas and shrubs were uprooted for arable land. The expansion of sown areas was especially successful in the colonized south of the country - in the North Caucasus, on the Don, in the southern Ukrainian provinces.

Neither the landlords nor the peasants could do without manufactured goods. To buy them they had to sell their products in the market. Meanwhile, the profitability of landlord estates under the dominance of serf labor, backward technology and low agronomic culture was small. Some landowners tried to increase the profitability of their economy by rationalizing it. They ordered cars from abroad, introduced a multi-field crop rotation, and bred thoroughbred cattle. The production of the most common machines in the landlord economy - threshers and winnowing machines - was established in Russia.

Advanced farms began to introduce new agricultural crops - beets, tobacco, sunflowers, grapes. The cultivation of potatoes has expanded significantly. In the southern provinces, the landlords began to resort to freelance labor, since there were not enough serfs here.

Under the influence of the development of commodity-money relations in the countryside, the stratification of the peasantry took place. Next to the mass of poor and disadvantaged families, a layer of wealthy peasants grew up, who were engaged in trade, usury, and invested their money in industrial enterprises. Out of their midst came big entrepreneurs who ransomed themselves for a lot of money and set up their own factories. These were Savva Morozov, the Prokhorovs, the Garelins and others. However, in general, Russian agriculture in the first half of the XIX century. was still at a very low level. Progressive methods of farming were incompatible with serfdom - attempts at rationalization, as a rule, ended in failure.

Most of the landlords ran their households in the old fashioned way and tried to increase their incomes by intensifying the feudal exploitation of the peasants. They increased the corvee, expanding their plowing at the expense of peasant land. In the black earth provinces, corvee reached 4-6 days a week, some landowners transferred peasants for a month, i.e. they took away the allotment and forced the peasants to work all the time on the land of the lords for an insignificant monthly ration (hence the name “month”). The ruin of the peasant, the deprivation of his land undermined one of the main features of feudalism - the endowment of the peasants with the means of production, and above all with land.

The situation of the peasants who were on quitrent also worsened.

The dues increased from 7 rubles. at the end of the XVIII century. up to 17-28 rubles. in the middle of the XIX century. This led to the impoverishment of quitrent peasants, a decrease in agricultural production. In search of earnings to pay dues, peasants were sometimes forced to leave for the city with the permission of the landowner, which destroyed another important feature of feudalism - the attachment of peasants to the land.

Serfdom is a brake on the development of the country's economy. Thus, the economic development of the country destroyed social structure feudal Russia. But serfdom hindered the development of industry, trade and transport: there were no free laborers, since the people were in serfdom; the domestic market was still narrow, since the peasants lived in poverty and consumed what their subsistence economy produced; there was no free capital, since the landowners did not have enough income to buy luxury goods, and their debts were constantly growing; merchant entrepreneurs preferred to invest their capital in trade rather than in industry, because they could not hire the required number of workers. The position of serf entrepreneurs was especially difficult. All their property was considered the property of the landowner, who could take it away at any time. And the landlords widely used this right. These entrepreneurs had to pay huge sums of money for ransom, which led to the reduction of their enterprises.

The serf entrepreneurs were forced to use cunning, to hide their capitals, to hide them in a "jet" instead of investing in production.

All this led to the fact that the country's economy developed slowly.

Agriculture was characterized by a routine state of technology, low productivity, which led to periodic famines, and an extremely low level of agronomic culture. The profitability of the landed estates fell, and the peasantry was ruined and impoverished.

These phenomena meant that the feudal economy had become obsolete and hindered the process of further development of the country.

Summing up what has been said, we can say that, although in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. the capitalist structure continued to take shape, it remained an agrarian country. Russia's most far-sighted politicians began to realize that the delay in economic development and the country's ever-increasing lag behind the West did not contribute to the growth of its international influence and would complicate the solution of many domestic problems.

Bibliography:

1. I.A. Fedosov “History of the USSR” M., 1992.

2. N.N. Khmelevsky "History of Economic Thought. Economic history of Russia” M., 1995.

3. “The history of homeland" ed. G.Z.Ioffe, V.I.Dodonova M., 1992.

4. "Russian history" ed. Sh.M. Munchaeva M., 1993.

5. N.A. Troitsky “Lectures on Russian history of the XIX century” Saratov, 1994.

6. “A Brief History Guide” ed. A.P. Korelina M., 1992.

In the 19th century The European economy has taken a huge step forward. More powerful productive forces were created in a century than in all previous history. Capitalism has won a complete victory in industry and agriculture. Production was freed from medieval constraints, shops and feudal duties of peasants were liquidated, plants and factories, railways and steamships were built.

Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution in England began at the end of the 18th century and then spread to other Western countries. She was an important factor social development European countries. The revolution in industry was made chiefly by the steam engine and the factory, and the predominance of machine production over manual production and the production of machines by machines signified its victory. In England, it ended in the middle of the 19th century, in France, Germany, Austria - 20-30 years later.

Major changes have taken place in transport. High-speed trains replaced slow wagons, sailing ships were replaced by steamboats, canals were built, roads were improved.

In the first half of the XIX century. Textile production remained the main industry, but the extraction of coal and iron ore, as well as metal smelting, increased rapidly. The economic power of the state was then measured by the number of cars, thousands and millions of tons of processed cotton, mined coal, smelted metal, thousands of kilometers of railway lines. Western Europe has entered the "age of steam and iron."

In England, for example, iron smelting in the first half of the 19th century. increased more than 12 times.

If the technical side of the industrial revolution consisted in the transition from manual manufacturing to factory production, then its social essence was the formation of two new social classes - the industrial bourgeoisie and wage workers, or the proletariat. Under feudalism, together with the peasantry, they constituted the lower third estate, but now they have become the two main classes of capitalist society, which occupied different social positions and had different interests.

Progress in industry and agriculture

From the middle of the XIX century. the number of technical inventions and improvements grew at an unprecedented rate: there were thousands of them.

New methods of steel smelting were discovered, the production of plastics and synthetic fabrics began, the telegraph and telephone, automobiles and airplanes appeared, the first tunnels were laid in the mountains, electricity came to industry and everyday life.

New industries emerged: chemical, electrical, automotive, oil production and oil refining. The "age of steam and iron" was a thing of the past. The symbols of the new era were electricity, steel and oil. Industrial production more than tripled.

But the growth of production was not constant, it was interrupted by crises (recessions), which in the XIX century. repeated every 8-12 years. The production of goods on a national scale was not planned, and when there were more of them than could be sold, prices suddenly and sharply fell, enterprises and banks were closed, production and trade were reduced. For the first time such a crisis of overproduction hit England in 1825. In total, in the 19th century. in England there were 9 strong economic crises, in France and Germany - 7 each.

Agriculture survived the agrarian revolution. From feudal it has turned into an entrepreneurial one. There were many farms that worked for the market and used hired labor. New agricultural machinery was improved and created (ploughs, seeders, reapers, sheaves, threshers, the first samples of caterpillar tractors and combines). The soil was better cultivated and fertilized, the yield of grain crops increased significantly and reached 14-20 centners per hectare, and in Denmark in 1913 even 29 centners. However, the share of agriculture in total production was falling, while the share of industry was increasing.

Monopolies

Industrial production was concentrated in ever larger enterprises. To get the most profit and win the competition, at the end of the 19th century. industrialists and bankers began to unite and create national and international unions, or monopolies (from the Greek monos - one and poleo - I sell). These were organizations of entrepreneurs who agreed among themselves on the size of production, markets and prices. In this way they suppressed competitors, subjugated or ruined small enterprises and banks. However, small enterprises were not completely destroyed - they were thousands of times larger in number than large associations and have survived to this day. After all, some enterprises went bankrupt, others were created.

American artist George Luque protests against the dominance of monopolies. He depicted them in 1890 as monsters devouring everything around. "Modern Threat" - this is the name of this picture

The competition has not disappeared either. The rivalry between gigantic monopolies and small and medium enterprises has accompanied the development of the capitalist economy up to the present day.

The period of domination of monopolies, starting from the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, was called the period of monopoly capitalism, or imperialism (from Latin imperium - power). At first, imperialism was understood only foreign policy aimed at territorial conquest and the creation of vast empires. Later, this term began to be used to refer to a new stage of capitalism, the starting point and main feature which were monopolies.

There were various types of monopolies: syndicates, cartels, trusts, etc. The members of the syndicate agreed on prices and the joint sale of goods, while maintaining independence in other areas of activity. The cartel is characterized by an agreement not only on prices and markets, but also on the quantity of products produced. The management of the trust managed all the activities of the enterprises and banks included in it.

One of highlights in the economic history of the late XIX - early XX century. was the creation of the capitalist system of the world economy, the foundations of which were laid back in the era of the Great geographical discoveries. The economy of one country turned out to be closely connected with the economy of other countries due to railways and steamboats, increased trade and extensive monetary transactions. The world economy resembled a single organism in which everything was interconnected. The central place in it until the end of the XIX century. occupied by England, and then - the United States.

Population

Urbanization. From the end of the XVIII century. population Western Europe increased rapidly and more than doubled in a century. At the beginning of the XX century. The first place in terms of population was occupied by Germany (67 million people), and Belgium remained the most populous country. Thanks to rising living standards and advances in medicine, mortality has decreased, and life expectancy has increased from 35 to 55 years.

At the end of the XIX century. most of population of Europe lived in countryside, but it was constantly decreasing, while under the influence of the rapid development of industry and trade, the number of citizens increased rapidly. The role of cities has greatly increased in all spheres of life. This process is called urbanization (from Latin urbanus - urban).

The most important role was played by large cities with a population of over 100 thousand people (at the end of the 19th century there were about 100 of them). They were the focus of the economic, political, cultural life of the country. Here were large enterprises and banks, accepted major decisions, the largest museums and theaters worked.

Life in cities became more convenient and comfortable. The streets have become cleaner and brighter than before, thanks to the improvement, the appearance of lighting, cleaning machines, and a sewerage system. Houses connected to central heating and water supply, elevators were installed in them. Large stations, markets, shops were built.

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW

In the early decades of the industrial revolution, child labor was widespread. In 1840, a parliamentary commission was set up in England to study this issue. She revealed the following facts: in the coal mines, children often started working at the age of four. Being in a small niche, they had to open the door to let the charcoal carts through, and then close it again. This was necessary to prevent the explosion of gases. Children got up at three o'clock in the morning, went down into the mine and were underground in the dark until five or six o'clock in the evening.
Eight-year-old children carried trolleys with coal. Since the roof of the mine was low, they tied a rope around the body and crawled along the trolley. These facts made a stunning impression, and after a while, laws were passed that limited child labor.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhehovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History New time XIX - early. XX century., 1998.

Textbook dialectics of a progressive line of development as a humane universal philosophy for the 21st century, Moscow 1994

St. Petersburg, publishing house "Petersburg-xxi century", 1997

Tests for the course "Social Studies"

Test on oligophrenopedagogy 4 Test for teachers of speech therapists 7

Methodological recommendations program general history: from ancient times to the end of the 19th century Grade 10, basic level (30 hours), profile level (58 hours)