This is nothing but the main form of economic cooperation between different countries. And its regulation to some extent by the state occurs depending on the social, economic, political tasks in the country itself and the situation in the whole world.
The state regulates international trade unilaterally, that is, the instruments of this regulation are used by the government without consultation and agreement with the country's trading partners. Regulation can also occur bilaterally, which means that different trade policy measures are agreed between countries that are trading partners. There is also multilateral regulation, that is, it is regulated by various multilateral agreements.
Currently, there are non-tariff methods of regulating foreign trade and tariff methods. The first is tariffs. it main instrument trade policy of any state and its legitimacy is recognized by international standards. Customs tariff has several definitions. The first is a tool used in trade policy and regulation of the domestic market in the process of its interaction with the world market. The second definition is a set of different ones that apply to goods crossing the customs border. This set of rates is systematized in full accordance with the entire product range.
Tariff methods for regulating foreign trade, namely, it consists of specific, clear rates customs duties used for the purpose of taxation of exported and imported goods. Customs duty is a mandatory fee that is collected by the customs authorities when exporting or importing goods.
Non-tariff methods of regulation international trade now actively used by the government of any state. Unlike customs tariffs, almost all of them are difficult to quantify and, as a result, are poorly reflected in statistics. Non-tariff methods of foreign trade regulation are financial, hidden and quantitative. The fact that they are not quantifiable makes it possible for various governments to use them either individually or in some combination of them to achieve their trade policy goals. If you use non-tariff methods of regulating foreign trade (especially intensive quantitative ones) together with liberal ones, then trade policy as a whole becomes more restrictive. Quantitative restrictions is an administrative form of non-tariff regulation of state trade, which is designed to determine the range and quantity of goods allowed for import and export. The government of a particular country may decide to apply quantitative restrictions on its own or based on their international agreements.
Quantitative restrictions come in two forms: contingent or quota. This is practically the same thing, the concept of contingent is often used to denote a quota that has a seasonal nature. Non-tariff methods of foreign trade regulation are also represented by licensing. It occurs through permits issued by government agencies to import or export goods for a specific period of time.
Hidden protectionist methods also play a big role. They represent all kinds of barriers of a non-customs nature, which are erected by local and central authorities. state power on the way of trade.
State regulation of foreign trade is based on tariff and non-tariff methods.
Tariff Methods involve the use of customs tariffs.
customs tariff is a systematized list of customs duties that are levied on goods imported into or exported from the country. At the same time, the list of goods is systematized according to certain criteria, and one or more rates of customs duties are indicated against each of the goods.
There are two types of customs tariffs: simple and complex.
Simple tariff provides for one rate of customs duties for each product, which is applied regardless of the country of origin of the product. This tariff does not provide for sufficient flexibility in customs policy, and therefore it does not correspond to modern conditions of competition in the world market.
Complex tariff involves the determination of two or more rates of customs duties for each product. It is often used in the foreign trade policy of states, as it allows to put pressure on some countries by imposing higher duties on their goods, and to provide benefits to other states, developing closer economic cooperation with them. Within the framework of a complex tariff, there are: autonomous, conventional and preferential rates. Autonomous rates are introduced on the basis of unilateral decisions of state authorities, are the highest and apply to goods imported from countries with which trade agreements and agreements have not been concluded. Conventional rates have a lower tariff rate than autonomous ones. They are determined on the basis of a bilateral or multilateral agreement, and apply to goods from countries that have concluded trade agreements. Preferential rates provide the lowest rates that are established in accordance with multilateral agreements and are used to create closed economic groupings, association regimes, as well as in trade with developing countries.
Since customs duties are associated with goods crossing the border, they are divided primarily into import, export and transit.
Import duties goods imported into the country are taxed. They perform mainly a fiscal function, providing a significant part of tax revenues to the budget.
Export duties These are taxes levied on goods exported outside the country. They are designed to limit the export of those goods that are needed by the domestic market (for example, oil), as well as replenish the revenue side of the budget.
transit fees are levied on goods that cross the territory of the state in transit. In world practice, they are rarely used, as they hold back commodity flows.
According to the form of taxation, duties are distinguished: ad valorem, which are levied as a percentage of the price of the goods (for example, 10% of the price of a car); specific, charged in the form of a certain amount of money from the volume, weight or piece of goods (for example, $ 15 per ton of metal); mixed, in which the goods can be subject to both ad valorem and specific duties.
Additional duties include: anti-dumping, countervailing and cartel.
Anti-dumping duties are applied in case of importation into the territory of the country of goods at prices below domestic prices, if such import causes economic damage to national producers.
Countervailing duties apply to those imported goods, in the production of which subsidies were directly or indirectly used, if these imports cause damage to national producers of similar products.
Cartel duties are applied against goods imported from those countries that carry out discrimination against this state, unfriendly acts, etc.
Under non-tariff methods regulation of trade turnover understand the administrative quantitative restrictions on the volume of imports and exports.
Quantitative restrictions on imports and exports are understood as an administrative form of non-tariff regulation of trade turnover, which determines the quantity and range of goods allowed for export or import. These include: quoting; licensing; voluntary export restrictions and market streamlining agreements; embargo.
Non-tariff methods of regulation are the most effective element in the implementation of foreign trade policy, because: as a rule, they are not bound by any international obligations; more convenient in achieving the desired result in foreign economic policy; allow to take into account specific situation emerging in the global economy, and apply adequate measures to protect the national market within a specific period; are not an additional tax burden for the population.
When classifying non-tariff methods, the methodology developed by the WTO Secretariat is used, according to which they are divided into five main groups: quantitative restrictions on imports and exports; customs and administrative import-export formalities; standards and requirements for the quality of goods; the restrictions laid down in the mechanism of payments; participation of the state in foreign trade operations.
Introduction
1 Methods state regulation foreign trade
1.1 Tariff methods of regulation
1.2 Non-tariff methods of regulation
2 Regulation of foreign trade in the European Union
3 Features of regulation of foreign trade activities in the Republic of Belarus
Conclusion
List of sources used
Application
INTRODUCTION
Regulation of foreign economic activity by the state took various forms throughout history; on the present stage the forms and methods of influencing international trade vary considerably depending on what kind of foreign trade policy a country adheres to - liberal or protectionist. The degree and instruments of government influence on the economy and, in particular, on the foreign trade sphere, play a crucial role in positioning the country in the world economic community.
The purpose of this work is to reveal the concept of state regulation of foreign trade and to establish its role in modern world. Tasks - to consider tariff and non-tariff methods of regulation, features of state intervention in foreign trade in the European Union and in the Republic of Belarus.
The structure of this work includes three sections, each of which solves one of these problems.
The object of study of the work is the methods and degree of state intervention in foreign trade activities. The subject of the study is the theoretical coverage of possible regulatory instruments and a comparison of existing approaches to this problem in the European Union and the Republic of Belarus.
In the process of writing the first section of this work, mainly textbooks and theoretical articles were used. When creating the second and third sections, articles on this topic were mainly used, as well as monographs on the problem of state regulation.
METHODS OF STATE REGULATION
FOREIGN TRADE
Tariff methods of regulation
With the development of the world economy and international economic relations, the instruments of foreign economic policy of states have developed and become more complex, having turned into a integrated system mechanisms for the implementation of state regulation of foreign economic activity (FEA).
Within the framework of foreign trade policy as a component of foreign economic policy, two groups of instruments are distinguished: the customs tariff system and a set of non-tariff regulation measures.
The customs tariff is a set of customs duty rates applied to goods transported across the border, systematized in accordance with the commodity nomenclature of foreign economic activity.
Customs duties are indirect taxes levied by governments for protectionist or fiscal purposes on goods as they cross borders. There are several classifications of fees. First of all, according to the object of taxation, there are:
import - duties that are imposed on imported goods when they are released for free circulation in the domestic market of the country. They are the predominant form of duties used to protect national producers from foreign competition;
export - a tax levied on export goods when they are released outside the customs territory of the state. This type of duty is introduced most often either in order to increase gross income or to create a shortage of this product in world markets, thereby increasing world prices for this product. In developed countries, export duties are practically not applied; The US Constitution, for example, even prohibits their use.
transit duties, which are levied on goods crossing the national territory in transit. They constrain the flow of goods and in most countries of the world are regarded as highly undesirable, violating normal functioning international relations.
Any tax on an imported or exported good may be levied in one of the following forms of duty:
ad valorem - a duty defined by law as a fixed percentage of the cost of an exported or imported product, with or without transportation costs;
specific - a tax defined as a fixed amount of money for each unit of goods (unit of measurement);
mixed duty - a combination of ad valorem and specific taxes.
Ad valorem duty can be calculated and established only after determining the customs value of the goods. The calculation of the customs value of goods is not always objective, primarily because of the informality of this procedure. For example, the customs value of goods imported into the United States is calculated on the basis of the FOB price (FOB - free on board), which includes, in addition to the price in the country of dispatch, the cost of delivering the goods to the port of departure, as well as the cost of loading it onto the vessel. The customs value of goods in the countries of Western Europe - members of the European Union is determined on the basis of the CIF price (cost, insurance, freight - cost, insurance, freight), which includes, in addition to the price of the goods themselves, the cost of loading onto a ship, transportation from the port of destination, paying for the ship's freight and insurance goods. This method of determining the customs value of goods increases the customs duty by 5-7%. The special duty is very easy to use, however, the level of protection of national producers with its help decreases during inflation and increases during deflation, remaining constant in both cases for the ad valorem duty.
There are also special duties that are applied by a country either unilaterally to protect against unfair competition from trading partners, or as a response to discriminatory actions on the part of other states. The most common special duties are seasonal (used for the operational regulation of international trade in seasonal products), anti-dumping and countervailing (imposed on the import of those goods in the production of which subsidies were used). The introduction of a special duty is usually the last resort resorted to by countries when all other ways to resolve trade disputes have been exhausted.
The customs tariff may be established on the basis of the principle of tariff autonomy or by agreement. In accordance with the principle of tariff autonomy, the country independently fixes the tariff and can change it according to own initiative. Conventional duties are established on the basis of a bilateral or multilateral agreement.
The vast majority of countries in the world have tariffs with constant rates, however, variable rates are also applied - tariffs, the rates of which can change in cases established by the government. Such tariffs are used, for example, in Western Europe as part of the common agricultural policy. Countries can use a tariff quota - a kind of variable customs duties, the rates of which depend on the volume of imports of goods: when importing within certain quantities, it is taxed at the base intra-quota tariff rate, when a certain volume is exceeded, imports are taxed at a higher excess quota tariff rate.
The undoubted trend of the modern world economy is its liberalization, which is expressed primarily in the reduction of obstacles to the free movement of goods and services. Thus, since the end of the 1940s, tariffs on the import of industrial goods to developed countries have decreased by 90% - to an average of 4%. . The processes of international integration are growing, manifested in the creation and strengthening of interstate trade and economic blocs - the EU, ASEAN, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, the Andean group. However, against this background, it is easy to notice the opposite phenomenon - the "double standards" of developed countries in relation to developing ones. Developed countries, declaring the inviolability of the principles of free trade and demanding from others their strict implementation, in practice raise tariffs on imports of those goods in which developing countries could have a comparative advantage in trade - products of labor-intensive industries and agriculture. It is estimated that developing countries annually lose up to 50 billion dollars due to the tariff policy pursued by developed countries. Entering the world market, the former face tariffs four times higher than those paid by the latter. Consequently, lowering the level of customs duties does not mean the elimination of regulation.
2. Non-tariff methods of regulation
The degree of influence of the state on foreign trade in last years increased largely due to non-tariff restrictions. These restrictions are due to covert nature enable governments to act almost uncontrollably. Therefore, the WTO opposes quantitative restrictions on trade and is in favor of replacing them with tariffs.
Non-tariff methods of regulation are the most effective element of the implementation of foreign trade policy for the following reasons:
o firstly, non-tariff methods of regulation, as a rule, are not bound by any international obligations, and, therefore, the scope and methodology of their application are completely determined by the national legislation of the country;
o secondly, they make it possible to take into account the specific situation that is developing in the global economy and apply adequate measures to protect the national market within a certain period, which is more convenient in achieving the desired result in foreign economic policy;
o thirdly, the use of non-tariff methods does not entail an additional tax burden for foreign trade entities. However, they are associated with other costs of foreign trade participants (for example, paying a fee for obtaining a license), which undoubtedly affects the final price of goods offered to the consumer.
Among the non-tariff methods of trade regulation, quantitative, hidden and financial methods are distinguished.
Quantitative restrictions are the main non-tariff method of trade policy and include quotas, licensing and "voluntary" restrictions on exports.
The most common form of non-tariff restrictions is quotas - limiting the amount or value of the volume of products allowed to be imported into the country (import quota) or exported from it (export quota) for a certain period. The state implements quotas by issuing licenses for the import or export of a limited amount of products and at the same time prohibits unlicensed trade.
Licensing can be an independent instrument of state regulation; in this case, the license is issued in the form of a single, general, global or automatic. The main methods of distribution of import licenses are the competitive auction and the explicit preference system. The most profitable for the country and the most fair way of distributing licenses is an auction. The open auction results in a price for import licenses that is approximately equal to the difference between the importer's price and the highest domestic price at which the imported good can be sold. In reality, however, auctions are rarely held openly and licenses are distributed on a corrupt basis. Under a system of explicit preferences, the government assigns licenses to certain firms in proportion to the size of their imports for the previous period or in proportion to the size of the demand structure from national importers.
"Voluntary" export restrictions are imposed by the government, usually under political pressure from a larger importing country that threatens to impose unilateral restrictive measures on imports. In fact, "voluntary" export restrictions are the same quota, only set not by the importer, but by the exporter. Often, exporting countries find workarounds, namely: switching to categories of goods that are not subject to restrictions; set up businesses abroad.
Along with the quantitative methods of trade policy, various methods of covert protectionism are currently playing a significant role. By some estimates, there are several hundred covert methods by which countries can unilaterally restrict imports or exports. The most common ones are:
· technical barriers - requirements for compliance with national standards, for obtaining quality certificates for imported products, for specific packaging and labeling of goods, and much more;
· internal taxes and fees - hidden methods of trade policy aimed at increasing the domestic price of imported goods and thereby reducing its competitiveness in the domestic market;
· public procurement policy – requiring government agencies and enterprises to buy certain goods only from national firms, even though these goods may be more expensive than imported ones;
Other examples of covert methods of restricting trade would be local content requirements or "market economy status".
Financial methods of trade regulation include subsidies, export credits and dumping. They are aimed at reducing the cost of the exported goods and, consequently, increasing its competitiveness.
Export subsidies are benefits and budget payments to exporters to expand the export of goods. The government may also subsidize industries that compete with imports. Thanks to subsidies, exporters can sell their products in the foreign market cheaper than in the domestic market. However, an increase in exports reduces the number of goods in the domestic market and leads to an increase in domestic prices, followed by a decrease in demand. In addition, subsidies increase budget spending; in the end result, the losses of the country exceed the profits.
Hidden subsidizing of exporters is expressed through the provision of tax incentives, through preferential terms of insurance and various types of export credit.
A common form of competition is dumping, which consists in promoting goods to the foreign market by reducing export prices below the normal price level existing in these countries, or even below costs. Dumping can be a consequence of the state's foreign trade policy if the exporter receives a subsidy.
Both export subsidies and dumping are considered unfair competition under WTO rules and are prohibited. The national anti-dumping laws of many countries allow the application of anti-dumping duties in case of detection of deliberate dumping.
The most severe form of restriction of foreign trade are economic sanctions. An example is a trade embargo, that is, a ban on the import into or export from a country of any goods. An embargo is usually introduced for political reasons - sometimes even though it is detrimental to the initiating country itself.
A special regime of customs and tariff regulation is General system preferences. Its essence lies in the provision by industrialized countries unilaterally of tariff preferences for the import of goods from developing countries. The system is designed to promote the economic growth of developing countries.
Tariff and non-tariff methods of state influence on foreign trade are widely used by many countries. To justify these methods, supporters of protectionism cite a number of evidence, many of which, however, can be refuted.
Supporters of protectionism believe that import restrictions are necessary to support domestic producers and save jobs, which should ensure social stability. But on the other hand, by limiting competition, conditions are being created for the preservation of inefficient production. It is commonly said that protectionism is necessary to protect young industries that take time to mature and establish themselves in the marketplace. However, it is quite difficult to identify truly promising industries in terms of the formation of new comparative advantages for the country. In addition, protectionism reduces incentives to improve efficiency, and as a result, the development of the industry may be delayed.
Protectionist policies are often carried out to replenish budget revenues; this practice is popular in countries where an effective tax system has not yet been formed. But revenues to the budget will depend on the price elasticity of demand for imports, and, therefore, the more elastic the demand, the more government revenue will increase when protection is weakened.
Another negative consequence of protectionism is the natural situation when such a policy pursued by one country causes a response from others, which increases market fluctuations in the world market.
Tariff measures increase the tax burden on consumers, who are forced by tariffs to buy both imported and similar local goods at higher prices. Thus, part of the income of consumers is redistributed to the state treasury and their disposable income is reduced.
Countries, by reducing imports with the help of a tariff and maintaining employment in industries that compete with imports, indirectly reduce their exports. Due to the tariff, foreign partners receive less revenue for their exports, which could be used to purchase goods exported by this country.
The most common form of state regulation of foreign trade activity is the tariff, however, at present, there is an increase in the importance and the emergence of new various forms of non-tariff import restrictions and export promotion. Despite the fact that the consequence of any customs protection is a decrease in the total welfare of the nation, all countries of the world apply some kind of trade restrictions. Meanwhile, under certain conditions, the use of the tariff may be more effective measure than economic passivity. It is important to find the optimal import tariff for the state, consumer and producer.
1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 2
1. Tariff methods of regulation of foreign trade……………………. 3
2. The concept of an open and closed economy……………………………….. 10
3. Task 1……………………………………………………………………… 15
4. Task 2……………………………………………………………………… 18
5. References…………………………………………………………. 24
Introduction.
The existence of states opposing each other sets the task for governments to ensure national interests, including through protectionist measures.
The main task of the state in the field of international trade is to help exporters export as much of their products as possible, making their goods more competitive in the world market and limit imports, making foreign goods less competitive in the domestic market. Therefore, part of the methods of state regulation is aimed at protecting the domestic market from foreign competitors and therefore refers primarily to imports. Another part of the methods has as its task the formation of exports.
The means of regulating foreign trade can take various forms, including both those directly affecting the price of goods (tariffs, taxes, excise and other duties, etc.), and limiting the value or quantity of incoming goods (quantitative restrictions, licenses, “voluntary » export restrictions, etc.).
The most common means are customs tariffs, the purpose of which is to obtain additional funds (usually for developing countries), regulate foreign trade flows (more typically for developed countries) or protect domestic producers (mainly in labor-intensive industries).
That is why it is important to evaluate the effectiveness of customs taxation, give a general description of customs duties, and analyze customs tariffs as a register of taxable commodity items.
Tariff methods of regulation of foreign trade.
One of the most common methods of economic regulation of foreign trade in world practice is tariff regulation, which involves a cost impact on export-import flows in the process of crossing state borders.
First of all, tariff regulation determines the procedure and methodology for customs taxation of goods, types of tariffs and duties, the regime of customs benefits, as well as a set of actions that relate to subjects of foreign economic activity in the implementation of an export-import operation.
The main element of the mechanism of tariff regulation is the customs tariff, which is a systematized list of rates that determine the amount of payment for import and export goods, that is, customs duties. As an active instrument of state regulation, the customs tariff is used in all developed countries, covering about 2/3 of their foreign trade turnover.
The customs tariff performs several functions: it protects national producers from foreign competition, it is a source of funds for the state budget, it serves as a means of improving the conditions for access of national goods to foreign markets.
The protection of national producers is achieved by the fact that in the field of imports, the customs policy is focused on reducing the cost of raw materials supplied from abroad. As a rule, imported raw materials are subject to the minimum customs rate. This, accordingly, reduces the costs of local producers. finished products. Conversely, customs tariffs on imported finished goods are set at a higher level. This allows local producers, even if elevated level their production costs, to compete in the national market with imported products.
The significance of the function of customs tariffs as a source of funds for the state budget tends to decrease, in connection with the global process within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and the liberalization of customs duties. At present, the share of this source in the tax revenues of the state budget of countries with developed market economies is a few percent.
Finally, customs tariffs can serve as a means to improve the conditions for the entry of national goods into foreign markets. To this end, countries interested in mutual deliveries are negotiating a mutual reduction in customs tariffs for the relevant products.
Customs tariffs can be applied both at the national level and at the level of individual political and economic groups. Of course, the vast majority of countries use customs tariffs at the national level. However, in some cases, the customs tariff may be the same for countries participating in a separate group. For example, the EU countries are separated from all other states by a customs tariff (about 6%).
Customs tariffs are based on commodity classifiers. At present, the most common classifier of goods circulating in foreign trade is the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System.
CLASSIFICATION OF CUSTOMS DUTIES
Before proceeding directly to the classification of customs duties, it should be noted that among the main functions of the customs tariff, protectionist and fiscal functions are highlighted. The protectionist function is associated with the protection of national producers. The collection of customs duties on imported goods increases the cost of the latter when they are sold on the domestic market of the importing country and thereby increases the competitiveness of similar goods produced by the national industry and agriculture. The fiscal function of the customs tariff ensures the receipt of funds from the collection of customs duties in the revenue part of the country's budget. Fiscal customs duties differ significantly from protectionist customs duties in that they generate revenues for the budget and affect the costs of those buyers who cannot do without imported goods. However, in many cases, the customs duty, being purely fiscal at first, becomes protectionist over time, and there is no clear separation between them.
The customs tariff is a fundamental instrument of protectionist policy. Customs and tariff regulation - a set of customs and tariff measures that are used as national trade and political tools for regulating foreign trade.
Balancing function - refers to export duties established to prevent unwanted export of goods, domestic prices for which, for one reason or another, are lower than world prices (currently practically not applied in the Russian Federation).
Customs duties can be classified according to the following parameters:
For trade circulation:
- Import (import) duties- imposed on imported goods, when they are released for free circulation in the domestic market of the country. Are the prevailing duties in all countries. On the initial stage development of capitalism with the help of import duties, tax revenues were provided; now their importance has declined sharply, and other tax revenues (for example, income tax) perform fiscal functions. If in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century up to 50% of all budget revenues were covered by import duties, at present this share does not exceed 1.5%. The share of income from import duties in the budget of the vast majority of industrialized countries does not exceed a few percent. In other words, if at the beginning of its existence, import duties ensured the receipt of funds, that is, they played a fiscal role, but today their functions are primarily related to ensuring the implementation of a certain trade and economic policy. In developing countries, on the other hand, import duties are used primarily as a source of financial revenue. This is due to the relatively greater possibility of control and the simplicity of the procedure for collecting taxes on goods crossing the customs border. As for Russia, recent changes in customs legislation show that the role of Russian import duties as a fiscal tool is increasing.
- Export (export) duties- imposed on the exported goods. In accordance with WTO rules, they are used extremely rarely, usually in the case of large differences in the level of domestic regulated prices and free prices on the world market for individual goods and are aimed at reducing exports and replenishing the budget.
- Transit (carriage) duties- imposed on goods transported in transit through the territory of a given country. International transit is the transportation of foreign goods, in which the point of departure and destination are outside the country.
On the basis of accrual:
- Specific- are charged in the prescribed amount per unit of taxable goods (for example, $ 20 per 1 ton). Practical use specific duties does not present any technical difficulties. Specific, as a rule, are export duties, they are levied mainly on raw materials.
- Ad valorem- are charged as a percentage of the customs value of taxable goods (for example, 15% of the customs value);
- Alternative. In the customs practice of industrialized countries, depending on the indications contained in the tariff, both ad valorem and specific duties are levied simultaneously or the one that gives the highest customs duty. At first glance, the distinction between ad valorem and specific duty is purely technical. However, in the customs and tariff business there are always trade, political and economic goals behind organizational and technical differences. Ad valorem and specific duties behave differently when prices change. As prices rise, ad valorem duties rise in proportion to the rise in prices, and the level of protectionist protection remains unchanged. Under these conditions, ad valorem duties are more effective than specific ones. And when prices fall, specific rates are more stable. Therefore, in the context of a long upward trend in prices, there is usually a desire to increase the share of ad valorem duties in the customs tariff.
- Combined- combine both types of customs taxation (for example, 15% of the vehicle, but not more than $ 20 per 1 ton.).
According to the nature of the application:
Seasonal - are used for the operational regulation of international trade in seasonal products, primarily agricultural.
Antidumping- is established to equalize the prices of imported goods to a level recognized as normal. They are applied when goods are imported into the country at a price lower than their normal price in the exporting country, if such imports harm local producers of such goods or hinder the expansion of national production. To make a decision on the introduction of anti-dumping duties, it is important to determine the goals and nature of dumping, which can be divided into permanent (aggressive) and one-time (passive).
Compensatory- are imposed on the import of those goods in the production of which subsidies were directly or indirectly used, if their import harms the national producers of such goods or hinders the organization or expansion of their production.
Special- a duty applied, firstly, as protective measure if the goods are imported into customs territory countries in quantities and under conditions that cause or threaten to cause damage to domestic producers of similar or directly competitive products. Secondly as a response to discriminatory and other actions that infringe on the interests of the country by other states or their unions.
Origin :
Autonomous- duty, established on the basis of unilateral decisions of the state authorities of the country. Its rates can be changed by the decision of the competent authority without agreement with the countries-foreign trade partners.
Conventional(negotiable) - are established on the basis of a bilateral or multilateral trade agreement (agreement), such as GATT / WTO. It applies only to those products that are specified in this document. The rates of such duties cannot be changed unilaterally; the term of their application is determined by the period of validity of the corresponding document.
preferential- a preferential duty introduced at reduced rates to encourage the import of certain goods from specific countries. Their goal is to support the economic development of these countries.
By bet type :
Permanent- customs tariff, the rates of which are set by the state authorities at a time and cannot be changed depending on the circumstances.
Variables- customs tariff, the rates of which can be changed in the established government bodies cases. Such rates are quite rare; they are used, for example, in Western Europe within the framework of the common agricultural policy.
By way of calculation:
Rated– customs rates specified in the customs tariff. They can only give a very general idea of the level of customs taxation to which a country subjects its imports and exports.
Effective- the actual level of customs duties on final goods, calculated taking into account the level of duties imposed on import units and parts of these goods.
In the customs and tariff practice of most countries, ad valorem duties are most widely used. Concerning special meaning acquired methods for estimating the value of imported goods, the application of which largely determines the determination of the price of goods for taxation. Depending on the method used, the price of the goods can be increased by 20-25%, and in some cases even twice. Therefore, methods for determining the price of imported goods are as important for calculating the amount of duties as the amount of the duty itself.
At present, the average level of customs tariff rates of industrialized countries is relatively low: approximately 6% of the value of the goods. In developing countries, the level of customs taxation of imports is much higher. The average level of customs tariffs in many developing countries is 38-40%, and rates range from 1% to 100% or more. For certain goods, the duty is 150-200% or more.
Concept of open and closed economy
The trend towards ever greater openness of national economies is a characteristic feature of modern development international division of labor. According to the degree of involvement in the international division of labor (degree of openness), national economies can be divided into two opposite types:
Completely closed (autocratic). A closed (autocratic) economy is understood as an economy, the development of which is determined exclusively by internal trends and does not depend on trends that take place in the world economy. At the same time, the country's economic ties with other national economies are minimal.
Completely open. A fully open economy is also understood as an economy, the development of which is determined by the trends in the world economy. The country's external relations are intensifying, and with the transition to a higher level of development, both absolute and relative expansion occurs.
The mere fact that there are economic ties between a given country and other countries does not mean that it has an open economy. At present, the economy of an individual country cannot develop in isolation from the world economy, without any links with other countries. Even when a country's economic policy is dominated by autocratic tendencies, external relations will inevitably play one role or another.
The economies of some countries are open in more, others to a lesser extent. Moreover, the economy of large countries, as a rule, is less open. The degree of openness of the economy also depends on the availability of natural resources, population size, as well as on its effective demand, which is determined by the level of development of productive forces. If the productive forces are equally developed, then the economy is more open, with a lower economic potential, which is understood as the ability of labor and material resources to ensure the maximum level of production of goods and services for industrial and non-industrial purposes, subject to the efficient use of all resources. In addition, the degree of openness of the economy also depends on the sectoral structure of national production. The more specific gravity basic industries (metallurgy, energy, etc.), the less the country's relative involvement in the international division of labor, i.e. degree of openness of its economy. On the contrary, the manufacturing industry, especially such industries as mechanical engineering, electronics, and chemistry, involve a deeper detailed specialization, due to which there is an increase in the technological interdependence of countries and, accordingly, an increase in the open nature of the economy. Thus, the degree of openness of the national economy is the higher, the more developed its productive forces are, the more industries with a deep technological division of labor in its sectoral structure, the less its overall economic potential and the provision of its own natural resources.
The export and import quotas are most often used as indicators used to measure the degree of openness of the economy.
Export quota is a quantitative indicator that characterizes the importance of exports for the economy as a whole and for individual industries for certain types of products. Within the framework of the entire national economy, it is calculated as the ratio of the value of exports (E) to the value of the gross domestic product (GDP) for the corresponding period as a percentage: Ke \u003d E / GDP * 100%.
Import quota is a quantitative indicator that characterizes the importance of imports for the national economy and individual industries in terms of various types products. Within the framework of the entire national economy, the import quota is calculated as the ratio of the value of imports (I) to the value of GDP: Ki=I/GDP*100%.
Foreign trade quota is defined as the ratio of the total value of exports and imports, divided in half, to the value of GDP as a percentage: Kv=E+I/2GDP*100%.
The movement towards an open economy is fraught with many complex problems, one of which is the problem of economic security- definition optimal conditions interaction with the world economy. For industrialized countries, especially those that do not have their own reserves of energy and raw materials, the openness of the economy is a significant factor influencing their further development. All other countries also participate in the international division of labor, and consequently, in the establishment and development commercial relations with each other, which leads to increased interconnections and interdependence of the subjects of the international division of labor and the need to combine the benefits of specialization and cooperation with protection from negative external influences. As a result, there is a risk of instability of the national economy, which is due to the fact that the trade relations that countries enter into as they “open” cannot be absolutely safe. Therefore, with the development of foreign trade in individual countries, only relative economic security, determined by interdependence, can take place.
Interdependence can lead to economic dependence, which is causal relationships in which external factors have a significant influence on the development of a particular situation. Addiction occurs when a change in the form of a fixture is required to solve any problem.
Adaptation means the ability of the state to influence the negative situation caused by external factors in such a way as to either eliminate external cause either eliminate the consequences or shift the costs of adjustment onto other countries. The possibilities of adaptation have clearly limited limits. Adjustment measures include:
Diversification of trade relations;
Strengthening and intensification of multifaceted cooperation;
Pressure (including military and economic);
Savings and creation of reserves;
Formation of export industries.
Dependence is manifested primarily in economic sensitivity, which refers to the exposure of the national economy negative impact external factors until a certain adaptation to a given situation is carried out in order to eliminate its adverse consequences. A higher degree of dependence is economic vulnerability, which is understood as the inevitability of incurring excessive adjustment costs under the influence of external factors, even after adjustment or a fundamental change in the internal situation. Economic vulnerability occurs when a critical threshold of adjustment costs has been passed. It is economic vulnerability that creates the problem of economic security, although this is not yet enough.
A sufficient condition for the violation of economic security is a threat - restriction of access to material, labor, scientific and technical resources and to the marketing system. There are two types of threats:
Power Threat
Threats to economic well-being.
Both types of threat come from the deliberate actions of the state or the trends in the development of the world economy. Threat tools are:
Economic blockade
Embargo
Linking systems
Various Discrimination Methods
Thus, economic security can be defined as a situation in which the provision of goods and services in a given country is protected from the action of external factors perceived as a threat to the effective functioning of the national economy. If the level of GNP is not significantly dependent on external intentional or random events, then National economy in safety. If the level of GNP reacts to external factors and their consequences cannot be neutralized, then the level of economic security decreases. Along with the concept of national economic security, there is the concept of international economic security, which is understood as a system of rules based on mutual trust and equality, creating economic and institutional conditions for lasting peace. General security means providing guarantees that neither side will be able to derive either economic or political unilateral advantages from the existence of economic dependencies within the world economy.
Determine the level of openness and development trends of Brazil and Germany. Data for three years are shown in Table 1. Criteria of openness - the share of foreign trade turnover in the country's national income; coefficient of elasticity of trade turnover in relation to national income. Economic openness indicators: export quota, import quota, foreign trade quota.
Table 1
Initial data of the task
SOLUTION:
The criterion of openness is the share of foreign trade turnover in the country's national income. Foreign trade turnover is the arithmetic average of exports and imports of products:
Thus, the level of openness of the German economy is higher than in Brazil. This is evidenced by the excess of openness in Germany over analogues in Brazil.
The level of openness of the German economy is growing every year. So in 1995 it was equal to 18.36%, in 2000 - already 18.89%, in 2005 -19.3%.
The elasticity coefficient is the ratio of the change in foreign trade turnover in % to the change in national income in %.
In 2000, relative to 1995, both countries have an elasticity coefficient close to 1. It follows that the economies of the countries are quite closed.
In 2005, relative to 2000, both countries have an elasticity coefficient greater than 1.
Export quota - the ratio of exports to GDP
Import quota - the ratio of imports to GDP
Foreign trade quota - the ratio of foreign trade turnover to GDP:
| Index | 1995 | 2000 | 2005 |
| Brazil | |||
| 565 | 717 | 749 | |
| Export, mln. | 52 | 56 | 57 |
| Import, million dollars | 40 | 60 | 71 |
| Foreign trade turnover | 46 | 58 | 71 |
| Export quota | 9,20% | 7,81% | 9,48% |
| Import quota | 7,08% | 8,37% | 9,48% |
| Foreign trade quota | 8,14% | 8,09% | 9,48% |
| Germany | |||
| Volume of gross domestic product, million dollars | 2046 | 2414 | 2353 |
| Export, mln. | 351 | 424 | 428 |
| Import, million dollars | 310 | 370 | 371 |
| Foreign trade turnover | 330,5 | 397 | 399,5 |
| Export quota | 17,16% | 17,56% | 18,19% |
| Import quota | 15,15% | 15,33% | 15,77% |
| Foreign trade quota | 16,15% | 16,45% | 16,98% |
Thus, judging by the indicators, the level of economic openness in Germany and Brazil in 2005 increased compared to 1995. However, the level of openness of the German economy is much higher than that of Brazil.
So, we can say that Germany is an open country, Brazil is a country striving for openness.
Based on the available data, determine all indicators of the country's foreign trade: the volume and dynamics of foreign trade turnover (the sum of the country's exports and imports); volume and dynamics of exports; volume and dynamics of imports; foreign trade balance (the difference between the volume of exports and imports of the country); commodity structure of foreign trade (share certain types goods in the country's exports and imports); geographical structure of foreign trade (the share of individual countries in the foreign trade of the country or the main trading partners of the country).
| Base year | Reporting year | |||
| Export | Import | Export | Import | |
| Total | 497,9 | 470 | 605,2 | 539,4 |
| Including | ||||
| Foodstuffs | 2,5 | 20,8 | 2,8 | 26,4 |
| Commodities | 59,7 | 21,2 | 68,7 | 21,6 |
| processed goods | 131,9 | 79,9 | 167,3 | 91,9 |
| cars and equipment | 134,4 | 126,9 | 176,2 | 140,5 |
| Vehicles | 79,7 | 66,1 | 88,6 | 86,1 |
| Other goods | 89,6 | 155,1 | 101,6 | 172,9 |
| Geographic distribution | ||||
| Industrialized countries of Europe | 392,0 | 360,6 | 492,6 | 453,2 |
| USA | 50,1 | 36,5 | 52,4 | 38,0 |
| Canada | 12,5 | 8,4 | 12,9 | 8,5 |
| Japan | 8,3 | 26,9 | 9,9 | 32,3 |
| Other countries | 34,9 | 37,6 | 37,5 | 7,2 |
Solution:
1. Volume and dynamics of foreign trade turnover.
Foreign trade turnover includes the sum of the value of exports and imports of a country participating in international trade.
The dynamics of foreign trade turnover can be assessed using the following indicators:
– absolute growth;
- growth rate;
- growth rate.
Absolute growth (∆ i) is determined by the formula:
∆ i \u003d Y i - Y i -1 , (1)
where ∆ i c is the absolute increase in the chain;
Y i - level of the compared period;
Y i -1 - the level of the immediately preceding period.
The growth rate (T p) is determined by the formula:
T p \u003d * 100% (2)
The growth rate is determined by the formula:
T pr \u003d T p - 100% (3)
We determine the volume and indicators of dynamics, the results of the calculations will be presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Volume and dynamics of foreign trade turnover
| Name | Volume of foreign trade turnover | Absolute growth | Growth rate, % | Growth rate, % | |
| Base year | Reporting year | ||||
| Total including: | 967,9 | 1144,6 | 176,7 | 118,26% | 18,26% |
| Foodstuffs | 23,3 | 29,2 | 5,9 | 125,32% | 25,32% |
| Commodities | 80,9 | 90,3 | 9,4 | 111,62% | 11,62% |
| processed goods | 211,8 | 259,2 | 47,4 | 122,38% | 22,38% |
| cars and equipment | 261,3 | 316,7 | 55,4 | 121,20% | 21,20% |
| Vehicles | 145,8 | 174,7 | 28,9 | 119,82% | 19,82% |
| Other goods | 244,7 | 274,5 | 29,8 | 112,18% | 12,18% |
In the reporting year, compared with the base year, the total volume of the country's foreign trade turnover increased by 18.26%, including for food products - by 25.32%, for raw materials - by 11.62%, for processed goods - by 22.38 %, for machinery and equipment - by 21.2%, for vehicles - by 19.82% and for other goods - by 12.18%.
2. The volume and dynamics of exports.
Export is the export of goods, as well as works and services from the customs territory of Russia abroad without the obligation to re-import them.
Let us determine the volume and indicators of the dynamics of exports, the results of the calculations will be presented in Table 2.
table 2
The volume and dynamics of the country's exports
| Name | Export volume | Absolute growth | Growth rate, % | Growth rate, % | |
| Base year | Reporting year | ||||
| Total including: | 497,9 | 605,2 | 107,3 | 121,55% | 21,55% |
| Foodstuffs | 2,5 | 2,8 | 0,3 | 112,00% | 12,00% |
| Commodities | 59,7 | 68,7 | 9 | 115,08% | 15,08% |
| processed goods | 131,9 | 167,3 | 35,4 | 126,84% | 26,84% |
| cars and equipment | 134,4 | 176,2 | 41,8 | 131,10% | 31,10% |
| Vehicles | 79,7 | 88,6 | 8,9 | 111,17% | 11,17% |
| Other goods | 89,6 | 101,6 | 12 | 113,39% | 13,39% |
In the reporting year, compared with the base year, the volume of exports increased by 21.55%, including for food products - by 12%, for raw materials - by 15.08%, for processed goods - by 26.84%, for machinery and equipment - by 31.1%, for vehicles - by 11.17% and for other goods - by 13.39%.
3. Volume and dynamics of imports.
Import - the importation of goods, works and services into the customs territory of Russia from abroad without an obligation to re-export.
Let us determine the volume and indicators of the dynamics of exports, the results of the calculations will be presented in Table 3.
Table 3
The volume and dynamics of the country's imports
| Name | Import volume | Absolute growth | Growth rate, % | Growth rate, % | |
| Base year | Reporting year | ||||
| Total including: | 470 | 539,4 | 69,4 | 114,77% | 14,77% |
| Foodstuffs | 20,8 | 26,4 | 5,6 | 126,92% | 26,92% |
| Commodities | 21,2 | 21,6 | 0,4 | 101,89% | 1,89% |
| processed goods | 79,9 | 91,9 | 12 | 115,02% | 15,02% |
| cars and equipment | 126,9 | 140,5 | 13,6 | 110,72% | 10,72% |
| Vehicles | 66,1 | 86,1 | 20 | 130,26% | 30,26% |
| Other goods | 155,1 | 172,9 | 17,8 | 111,48% | 11,48% |
In the reporting year, compared with the base year, the volume of imports increased by 14.77%, including food products - by 26.92%, raw materials - by 1.89%, processed goods - by 15.02%, machinery and equipment - by 10.72%, for vehicles - by 30.26% and for other goods - by 11.48%.
4. Foreign trade balance (the difference between the volume of exports and imports of the country).
The foreign trade balance is the ratio of the value of goods imported into the country and exported from the country for a certain period of time. If the value of exported goods exceeds the value of imported goods, the foreign trade balance is considered to be active, if the ratio is reversed, it is passive. The difference between the value of exports and imports is called the balance, the value of which depends on fluctuations in commodity prices, the exchange rate, the pace of economic development, etc.
Let's make a table 4.
Table 4
Foreign trade balance of the country
| Base year | Reporting year | Balance | ||||
| Export | Import | Export | Import | Base year | Reporting year | |
| Total | 497,9 | 470 | 605,2 | 539,4 | 27,9 | 65,8 |
| Foodstuffs | 2,5 | 20,8 | 2,8 | 26,4 | -18,3 | -23,6 |
| Commodities | 59,7 | 21,2 | 68,7 | 21,6 | 38,5 | 47,1 |
| processed goods | 131,9 | 79,9 | 167,3 | 91,9 | 52 | 75,4 |
| cars and equipment | 134,4 | 126,9 | 176,2 | 140,5 | 7,5 | 35,7 |
| Vehicles | 79,7 | 66,1 | 88,6 | 86,1 | 13,6 | 2,5 |
| Other goods | 89,6 | 155,1 | 101,6 | 172,9 | -65,5 | -71,3 |
For all goods in total, the foreign trade balance is active (export exceeds import). For food and other goods, the balance is passive (imports exceed exports). A passive foreign trade balance adversely affects the state of the country's economy and its foreign economic situation.
5. Commodity structure of foreign trade (the share of certain types of goods in the country's exports and imports).
The commodity structure is the ratio of commodity groups in world exports and imports.
Let's make a table 6.
Table 6
Commodity structure of foreign trade, percent
| Base year | Reporting year | |||
| Export | Import | Export | Import | |
| Total | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 |
| Foodstuffs | 0,005 | 0,044 | 0,005 | 0,049 |
| Commodities | 0,120 | 0,045 | 0,114 | 0,040 |
| processed goods | 0,265 | 0,170 | 0,276 | 0,170 |
| cars and equipment | 0,270 | 0,270 | 0,291 | 0,260 |
| Vehicles | 0,160 | 0,141 | 0,146 | 0,160 |
| Other goods | 0,180 | 0,330 | 0,168 | 0,321 |
The structure of imports is dominated by other goods, exports - processed goods, machinery and equipment.
6. The geographical structure of foreign trade (the share of individual countries in the foreign trade of the country or the main trading partners of the country).
The geographical structure is the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, distinguished either on a territorial or organizational basis.
Let's make a table 7.
Table 7
Geographic structure of foreign trade, percent
In the base and reporting years, in the geographical structure of foreign trade, exports to the industrialized countries of Europe and imports from the industrialized countries of Europe accounted for the most, exports to Japan and imports from Japan were the least.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. "Economic theory". Textbook edited by I.P. Nikolaeva M., "Prospect", 1998
2. "International economic relations" E.F. Avdokushin. Tutorial. M., 1999
3. "World economy" Questions and answers. P.V. Sergeev M., "New Lawyer", 1998
4. Avdokushin E. F. International economic relations. - M.: Lawyer. 20059. - 368 p.
5. Akopova E. S., Voronkova O. N., Gavrilko N. N. World economy and international economic relations - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix. 2004. - 416 p.
6. Kudrov V. M. World economy: Textbook - M.: Publishing house BEK. 2004. - 464 p.
7. World Economy: Textbook / Edited by Bulatov. - M .: Jurist. 2005. - 734 p.
8. Economics of the enterprise / Edited by Safronov N. A. - M .: Jurist. 2004. - 608 p.
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | Tariff Methods |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Sport |
Tariff methods consist in establishing a customs tariff (duty). This is the most traditional method, an actively used means of state regulation of export-import operations.
customs tariff- ϶ᴛᴏ a systematic list of duties that the government imposes on certain goods imported into or exported from the country.
Customs duties- ϶ᴛᴏ taxes levied by the state for the transportation of goods, property, valuables across the border of the country.
The beginning of the formation of the customs tariff - III - II millennium BC. The term ʼʼtariffʼʼ originates from the southern Spanish city of Tariff, in which a table was first compiled, where the names of goods, measures of measurement and the amount of duties for the transport of goods through the Strait of Gibraltar were entered.
The customs tariff performs the following functions:
1) fiscal (replenishment of budget revenues);
2) protective (protection of domestic producers from competition);
3) regulatory (regulates the import and export of goods);
4) trade and political.
There are fees:
Import (they are subject to goods imported into the country);
Export (they are subject to exported goods);
Transit (levied on goods crossing the national territory in transit).
Import duties are divided into fiscal and protectionist. Fiscal duties apply to goods that are not produced domestically. Protectionist duties designed to protect local producers from foreign competitors.
Import duties are used either as a means of financial revenue (more often in developing countries) or as a means of pursuing a certain trade and economic policy. The owner of the imported goods, after paying the duty, will raise the price. The tariff, by restricting imports, leads to a deterioration in consumer opportunities. But it is beneficial to the state and domestic producers.
Export duties increase the cost of goods on the world market, and therefore they are used in cases where the state seeks to restrict the export of this product. The purpose of export duties, levied by countries with monopoly natural advantages, is to limit the supply of raw materials to the world market, increase prices and increase the income of the state and producers.
In developed countries, export duties are practically not applied. The US Constitution even prohibits their use.
Transit duties hinder the flow of goods and are regarded as highly undesirable, disrupting the normal functioning of international relations. Today they are practically not used.
There are two main methods for establishing the level of customs duties:
1. The amount of the fee is determined as a fixed amount per unit of measurement (weight, area, volume, etc.). This fee is called specific. It is especially effective in conditions of falling prices for goods - during periods of depression and crises.
2. The duty is established as a percentage of the value of the goods declared by the seller. called ad valorem.
The domestic price of an imported good (P d) after imposition of a specific tariff will be equal to:
P d = P im + T s ,
where: P im - the price at which the goods are imported (customs value of the goods);
T s - specific tariff rate.
If an ad valorem tariff is applied, the domestic price of an imported good will be:
P d \u003d P im * (1 + T av),
where: T av – ad valorem rate.
There is also an intermediate method, which consists in the fact that the customs gets the right to independently choose between specific and ad valorem duties based on which one is higher. Such a fee alternative.
Trading countries can be in various contractual and political relations: be members of a customs or economic union, have a signed agreement on granting them the most favored nation treatment.
Taking into account the dependence of the regime, the duties levied on the delivered goods are established:
Preferential (especially preferential);
Contractual (minimum);
General (autonomous), that is, maximum.
Rates preferential duties below the minimum and often equal to zero. The right to use preferential duties is given to countries that are members of economic integration groups: free trade zones, customs and economic unions etc. For example, the countries of the European Union provide each other with preferential duties (equal to zero) on the import of goods, which do not apply to other countries.
General (maximum) duty two to three times higher than all others, and its application effectively discriminates against goods imported from a particular country. For example, levying on the import of goods from the USSR to the United States during the Cold War.
With the introduction of a customs tariff, the price of imported goods increases. This contributes to an increase in prices for domestically produced goods. The supply of goods in the domestic market increases, but demand decreases. As a result, there is a decrease in imports.
The impact of the tariff is different for economic entities. So consumers:
1) pay the income from the tariff;
2) pay profits to firms;
3) pay the excess costs of domestic production;
4) lose consumer surplus.
The state benefits from the introduction of a customs tariff, as revenues to the budget increase. In essence, this is a transfer from the consumer to the state.
domestic producers receive additional profit. This profit is a transfer of income from consumers to producers.
Society incurs social costs because the resources that flow into the industry protected by the tariff could be used more efficiently in other sectors of the economy.
In the EU, import duties on rice are 231%, dairy products - 205%, sugar - 279%. In Japan, the duty on rice is 444%, on wheat - 193%. In the US, the duty on dairy products is 93%, on sugar - 91%.
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