The intensity of each interaction is usually characterized by an interaction constant, which is a dimensionless parameter that determines the probability of processes due to this type of interaction.
Gravitational interaction. The constant of this interaction has a value of the order of . The range of action is not limited. Gravitational interaction is universal, all particles without exception are subject to it. However, this interaction does not play a significant role in the processes of the microworld. There is an assumption that this interaction is transmitted by gravitons (quanta of the gravitational field). However, to date, no experimental facts that would confirm their existence have been found.
Electromagnetic interaction. The interaction constant is approximately , the radius of action is not limited.
Strong interaction. This type of interaction ensures the connection of nucleons in the nucleus. The interaction constant has a value of the order of 10. The largest distance at which strong interaction is manifested is a value of the order of m.
Weak interaction. This interaction is responsible for all types - the decay of nuclei, including electronic K-capture, for the processes of decay of elementary particles and for the processes of interaction of neutrinos with matter. The order of magnitude of this interaction constant is . The weak interaction, like the strong one, is short-range.
Let's get back to the Yukawa particle. According to his theory, there is a particle that transmits a strong interaction, just as a photon is a carrier of electromagnetic interaction, it was called a meson (intermediate). This particle should have a mass intermediate between the masses of an electron and a proton and be . Since photons not only transmit electromagnetic interaction, but also exist in a free state, therefore, free mesons must also exist.
In 1937, a meson (muon) was discovered in cosmic rays, which, however, did not show a strong interaction with matter. The desired particle was also discovered in cosmic rays 10 years later by Powell and Occhialini, and they called it a meson (pion).
There are positive, negative and neutral mesons.
The charge of and mesons is equal to the elementary charge. The mass of charged mesons is the same and equal to 273 , the mass of the electrically neutral meson is slightly less and amounts to 264 . The spin of all three mesons is zero; the lifetime of charged mesons is 2.6 s, and the lifetime of a meson is 0.8 s.
All three particles are not stable.
Elementary particles are usually divided into four classes:
1. Photons(quanta of the electromagnetic field). They participate in electromagnetic interaction, but do not manifest themselves in any way in strong or weak interactions.
2. Leptons. These include particles that do not have a strong interaction: electrons and positrons, muons, as well as all kinds of neutrinos. All leptons have spin ½. All leptons are carriers of the weak interaction. Charged leptons also participate in electromagnetic interaction. Leptons are considered to be true elementary particles. They do not break down into their component parts, have no internal structure, and have no dimensionally identifiable upper limit m).
The last two classes make up complex particles that have an internal structure: mesons and baryons. They are often combined into one family and are called hadrons.
This family includes all three - mesons, as well as K-mesons. The class of baryons includes nucleons, which are carriers of the strong interaction.
As already mentioned, the Schrödinger equation does not satisfy the requirements of the principle of relativity - it is not invariant with respect to Lorentz transformations.
In 1928, the Englishman Dirac obtained a relativistic quantum-mechanical equation for the electron, from which the existence of the spin and intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron naturally followed. This equation made it possible to predict the existence of an antiparticle in relation to an electron - a positron.
From the Dirac equation it turned out that the energy of a free particle can have both positive and negative values.
Between the largest negative energy and the smallest positive energy there is an interval of energies that cannot be realized. The width of this interval is . Consequently, two regions of energy eigenvalues are obtained: one starts from extends to + , the other starts from and extends to . According to Dirac, vacuum is a space in which all allowed levels with negative energy values are completely filled with electrons (according to the Pauli principle), with positive ones they are free. Since all levels without exception below the forbidden band are occupied, the electrons located at these levels do not manifest themselves in any way. If one of the electrons at the negative level is given energy , then this electron will go into a state with positive energy, then it will behave there as an ordinary particle with a negative charge and positive mass. A vacancy (hole) formed in the aggregate of negative levels will be perceived as a particle with a positive charge and mass. This first theoretically predicted particle was called the positron.
The birth of an electron-positron pair occurs when -photons pass through matter. This is one of the processes leading to absorption - radiation by matter. The minimum energy - a quantum, necessary for the birth of an electron-positron pair is 1.02 MeV (which coincided with Dirac's calculations) and the equation for such a reaction has the form:
Where X is the nucleus, in the force field of which the birth of an electron-positron pair occurs; it is precisely this that receives an excess of momentum - a quantum.
Dirac's theory seemed too "crazy" to his contemporaries and was recognized only after Anderson discovered the positron in cosmic radiation in 1932. When an electron meets a positron, annihilation occurs, i.e. the electron returns to the negative level again.
In a somewhat modified form, the Dirac equation is applicable to other particles with half-integer spin. Therefore, for each such particle there is its own antiparticle.
Almost all elementary particles, as already mentioned, belong to one of two families:
1. Leptons.
2. Hadrons.
The main difference between the two is that hadrons participate in the strong and electromagnetic interactions, while leptons do not.
Leptons considered to be true elementary particles. There were four of them: electron (), muon (), electron neutrino (), muon neutrino. Later, the lepton and its neutrino were discovered. They do not break down into their component parts; do not find any internal structure; have no identifiable dimensions.
hadrons more complex particles; they have an internal structure and participate in the strong nuclear force. This family of particles can be divided into two classes:
mesons and baryons(proton, neutron, -baryons). The last four types of baryons can eventually decay into protons and neutrons.
In 1963, Gell-Mann and, independently of him, Zweig expressed the idea that all known hadrons are built from three truly elementary particles - quarks, which have a fractional charge.
u- quark q = + ; d – quark q = - ; s – quark q = - .
Until 1974, all known hadrons could be represented as a combination of these three hypothetical particles, but the heavy meson discovered that year did not fit into the three-quark scheme.
Based on the deep symmetry of nature, some physicists hypothesized the existence of a fourth quark, which was called the "charmed" quark; its charge is equal to q = + . This quark differs from the rest by the presence of a property or quantum number C \u003d +1 - called "charm" or "charm".
The newly discovered meson turned out to be a combination of a "charmed" quark and its antiquark.
Further discoveries of new hadrons required the introduction of the fifth (c) and sixth (t) quarks. The difference between quarks came to be called "color" and "flavor".
GRAVITY AND ITS PHYSICAL ESSENCE
Gadzhiev S.Sh., Doctor of Technical Sciences, prof.
NOU HPE "Social and Pedagogical Institute", Derbent
Annotation: The article deals with the phenomena of the movement of the forces of nature, and by these forces other phenomena that allow revealing the essence of the knowledge of natural phenomena in general, and, in particular, the riddles of "gravitation" and (or) the physical essence of gravity. The universal law of interaction between the forces of the system and the universal method based on it serve as the key to understanding natural phenomena and processes. From the conducted comprehensive analysis of the interaction of the bodies of the system, it turns out that the reason for the lack of disclosure of the physical essence of the law of universal gravitation turned out to be the absence in nature as such of the gravity of bodies to each other.
Keywords: knowledge of natural phenomena, law, method, interaction of bodies.
Abstract: This article examines the phenomenon of motion the forces of nature, and these forces other phenomena, allowing to discover the essence of knowledge of natural phenomena in general and, in particular, the puzzle of "gravitation" and (or) the physical nature of gravity. Universal law of the interaction of forces and systems based on it are the key universal method of knowledge of natural phenomena and processes. Of conducted a comprehensive analysis of the interaction of bodies appears that the reason is not solved the physical essence of the law of universal gravitation was in the nature of the absence of gravity as such bodies to each other.
Keywords: knowledge of natural phenomena, law, method, interacting bodies.
The history of the idea of universal gravitation
Academician S.I. Vavilov in his book "Isaac Newton" cites a well-known story that Newton's discovery of universal gravitation was caused by an unexpected fall of an apple from a tree in Woolstorp. This story, apparently, is reliable and is not a legend. Stekelei relates the following scene relating to Newton's old age: “After dinner in London (at Newton's) the weather was hot; we went into the garden and drank tea in the shade of several apple trees; were only
we are together. By the way, Ser Isaac told me that this was the situation he was in when the idea of gravity first occurred to him. It was caused by the fall of an apple while he sat deep in thought. Why do apples fall vertically, he thought to himself, why not to the side, but always towards the center of the Earth. There must be an attractive force in matter, concentrated in the center of the Earth. If matter pulls other matter in this way, then there must be a proportionality to its quantity. Therefore, the apple attracts the Earth in the same way as the Earth pulls the apple. There must therefore be a force, like that which we call gravity, extending throughout the universe."
For some reason, Stekelei's story remained little known, but a similar retelling of Voltaire from the words of Newton's niece spread around the world. They liked the story, they began to show the apple, as if it had served as the reason for the emergence of the "Beginnings", poets and philosophers used a grateful metaphor, comparing Newton's apple with the apple that killed Adam, or with the apple of Paris; people far from science liked the simple mechanics of the emergence of a complex scientific idea. There are other fictional legends. As we can see, here Newton gave his assumption about the occurring phenomenon, without revealing its physical mechanism, and, naturally, this seemed to him a real conjecture of the essence of the natural phenomenon.
Although gravity is the most clearly palpable of all four fundamental forces of nature, which acts on everything and all of us, starting from childhood, when we barely got up and fell, not staying on our feet. However, it still remains an unsolved mystery of nature.
More than three hundred years have passed since the discovery of the law of universal gravitation, established by Newton in the form of a mathematical formula, and the physical mechanism of attraction of bodies to each other has not yet been revealed.
The reason for everything is the absence as such of the law of universal gravitation in general, and due to the absence of the gravitation of any bodies to each other in nature. All processes that occur and are attributed to "gravity" are performed by the gravitational field, and not by gravity, attributed to the nature of the forces of the gravitational field. Gravity is not attraction. Nothing can create the attraction of bodies to each other, including gravity. Any physical field does its work. Do we ascribe to the action of a known magnetic field the concept of "gravity"? No. Because at the same time there is a repulsion. The whole reason lies in the interaction, that is, in the direction of movement of these (considered) magnetic fields.
It is believed that according to Einstein, space and time are a form of the existence of matter. In reality, no one can object and doubt that space and time determine the location and duration of the existence of matter, including all kinds of physical fields. The basis of the entire Universe is space, where material components take place, as well as all known and not yet revealed physical fields, and
time determines the duration of the existence of material bodies and the duration of the phenomena and processes of nature.
The ideas that have arisen about the curvature of space are even worse when they consider that matter is a curved space. Then it turns out that matter is absent in nature, it becomes space, that is, matter turns into curved space. It follows from this that space happens in two states: curved and not curved. Only they cannot indicate the location and transformation or transition of matter into curved space. It is impossible to take the distribution (or location) of energy in space as a curvature of space itself. The assertion that it is not the beam that changes its direction when passing by the Sun, but the curved space that directs it in this way, should be considered unfounded. To change the direction of movement, a certain force must be applied, which could give a reason for justifying one or another phenomenon. In other words, such unsubstantiated statements evoke nothing but the irony of a sober mind. It turns out that there is no matter in nature, only curved and not curved space remains.
Unnecessarily, time was “glued” to space and, “at the behest of a pike,” it was called four-dimensional space. As a result, out of the three fundamental components of the Universe, only one space remained, to which many hypothetical assumptions are attributed, which have already entered the everyday life of scientists, having no real physical understanding of such multidimensional spaces. However, such multidimensionalities of space are just speculative constructions, not based on practice, which mislead many generations.
In any case, it remains obvious that nature is based on its three fundamental components: space, time, matter. Without their independent existence, of course, the flow of any phenomena and processes is unthinkable. The simplest example. The body is moving. This requires space, time and also the body itself (matter). Which of them can be excluded from this phenomenon? Syncretism, that is, fusion, was provided by Nature itself. Why unite them in parts: space-time, space-body (matter) or unite time with matter? They are united without us and forever. This is that "Holy Trinity", without which nothing can be.
If matter disappears (removes), then time and space will remain unclaimed. Getting rid of space and time is not possible. They are absolute, that is, eternal and unchanging fundamental principles, like matter, for everything that exists in the universe. Naturally, for the finding (existence) of matter, space is necessary as a container, and time is necessary for the duration of existence. Consequently, all these three components of the Universe itself enter into their functions, providing all natural phenomena and processes. The task of science is to understand the physical mechanism and
the reason for the emergence of phenomena and processes, that is, to get to the essence of these patterns of phenomena and answer the question: why does this happen in this way and not otherwise?
Matter (mass) cannot change the geometry of space. It only concentrates the flow of gravitons, and the gravitational field does not belong to any planet or other cosmic bodies, just as light does not belong to the focusing lens. It is a completely different matter when we consider the magnetic field created by the magnet itself. In other words, the magnet radiates its field into space, and the light and gravitational field, in the phenomena under consideration, do not belong to these bodies. They come from outside from other emitters. For example. Light can enter the lens from any of its sources. We do not say that the lens bends space, although there is a real similarity of curvature, that is, a change in the direction of the flow of light. A similar picture is observed with the gravitational field when passing through massive cosmic bodies.
Here we find an analogy between a stream of light and a gravitational field. When the direction of light through the lens is bent, we observe the refraction of light and cannot in any way assert that the light enters the curved space near the lens. In contrast, the magnetic field created by the magnet itself belongs to the magnet, and the gravitational field does not belong to any body with which they interact. The lens only concentrates or may, depending on the shape of the lens (optical glass), scatter the light flux. The same can be said about the concentration of the flow of the gravitational field, carried out by a large mass of spherical bodies in space.
The gravitational field does not create gravity, but the pushing of bodies
A comprehensive analysis of the interaction of the forces of the system shows that attraction is an apparent phenomenon, as the rotation of the Sun, stars and planets around our Earth previously seemed.
It is known that the search for the fundamental laws of nature remains another grandiose task of science. The nature of forces is recognized by the phenomena of motion, when there is a change in the amount of motion in time. To reveal the nature of the physical essence of the forces of gravity, which determines the gravity of the body, it is necessary to look for the cause of the occurrence of such gravity by the phenomena of movement of the interacting material bodies of the system under consideration.
There is no doubt that all attempts to understand the physical nature of gravity
invariably ended in failure. Even G. Galileo came to the conclusion on this issue that we do not know anything, except for the name, which for this special case is known as "gravity".
I. Newton, faced with the problem of explaining the nature of gravity, was forced to admit that he could not derive the cause of gravity from phenomena.
M. Kline writes that Newton explained the limited success of his program as follows: “The fact that gravity should be an internal, integral and essential attribute of matter, thereby allowing any body to act on another at a distance through a vacuum, without any intermediary, with by means of which and through which action and force could be transmitted from one body to another, seems to me such a blatant absurdity that, in my deep conviction, not a single person, in any way versed in philosophical matters and endowed with the ability to think, will agree with it. ".
Newton was clearly aware that the law of universal gravitation he discovered was a description, not an explanation. Therefore, he wrote to Richard Bentley: “Sometimes you speak of gravity as something essential and intrinsic to matter. I beg you not to attribute this concept to me, because I do not at all pretend to know the causes of gravity, and therefore I will not waste time on their consideration. In the same place, M. Kline writes further that H. Huygens was surprised that Newton took the trouble to do a lot of cumbersome calculations, without having the slightest reason for this, except for the mathematical law of universal gravitation. Huygens considered the idea of gravity absurd on the grounds that its action, transmitted through empty space, excluded any mechanism whatsoever. G. V. Leibniz also criticized Newton's works on the theory of gravity, believing that the famous formula for the forces of gravity is nothing more than a computational rule that does not deserve the name of a law of nature. "Leibniz compared this law to Aristotle's animistic explanation of a stone falling to the ground by referring to the stone's 'desire' to return to its natural place".
Newton himself did not believe that the nature of gravity could not be revealed. He simply believed that the level of knowledge of his time was insufficient to solve this problem, and hoped that others would explore the nature of gravity. However, his followers elevated Newton's temporary refusal to explain gravity into an unshakable principle of science, which should limit itself only to describing phenomena, without revealing in depth their causes, which are still inaccessible to human understanding.
This approach to solving problems is typical of some researchers with difficulties in understanding natural phenomena. A similar method has limited the solution to the fluidized bed problem. Some even decided to accept fluidization as a new state of matter and abandon further search for the physical essence of this phenomenon. The special interest of scientists in this issue "faded" all over the world after we discovered the real physical essence of the inhomogeneous fluidized state and published the results in a number of countries abroad.
The explanation of the "negative" result of the Michelson-Morley experiment remains an age-old problem. Due to the absence, for a certain period of time, of a real unambiguous explanation of the result of only one of this experiment and
their powerlessness, the researchers began to question the entire foundation of classical mechanics, including the immutable laws of conservation. As a result, dependencies not inherent in nature were introduced: mass, time and space on the speed of bodies. The solution to this problem and the real approach we have found may well turn out to be final. Let's hope that they will hear us, understand us, objectively evaluate and accept our decision, which will return the unshakable foundations of classical mechanics. This topic should be covered in detail in a separate work. Despite the widespread law of universal gravitation, no one has yet been able to explain its physical mechanism, and the nature of its action remained undiscovered.
At the present stage of the development of science, it seems to us that gravity does not arise due to gravity, but as a result of pushing, caused by the resistance exerted by the body when the gravitational field passes through it.
Analyzing the real essence of the observed phenomena, one can come to the conclusion that “attraction” is an apparent phenomenon. Bodies are not attracted, but they are pushed towards each other or they are pushed away from each other.
In nature, apparently, there is no physical mechanism for the "attraction" of bodies, since there is no attraction at a distance without external action. The interaction of bodies causes only their pushing and repulsion. The mechanism of the observed (in reality, apparent) "attractive force" of two bodies includes pushing due to a change in the amount of motion (or momentum) of the third body interacting with them.
The gravitational field (i.e. gravitons), which exerts pressure on all material bodies, which in reality creates gravity, which we take for "attraction" to the Earth, serves as such a third body, which determines the apparent attraction to the Earth.
A similar picture is observed here, as at one time it was believed that the Earth is the center of the Universe, and all celestial bodies move around it. In the gravitational field, the "attraction" to the Earth also seemed obvious, but in reality, every particle of the planet itself and the surrounding atmosphere experience pressure (force) of the gravitational field directed perpendicular to the Earth's surface. Consequently, it is not the Earth that attracts to itself, but it itself experiences the force of pressure of gravitons, which gives "weight" to all the material constituent elements of the Earth system.
There is a significant difference in the phenomena of the gravitational field and electromagnetic interaction. In electromagnetic fields, there is attraction and repulsion, and in a gravitational field, only heaviness arises. Apparently, in electric charges, some charged bodies radiate an electric field, while others receive it, like a magnet, where the lines of force always emanate from the north pole and go to the south pole, which they enter. AT
As a result, like fields repel each other, and unlike components of these fields push the bodies towards each other.
In contrast to them, the gravitational field permeates all bodies. At the same time, the resistance exerted by material bodies to the gravitational field causes pressure, which causes gravity. This energy of gravity, created by the gravitational field in massive bodies, turns into heat, due to which the corresponding temperature is created and maintained in the depths of planets and stars indefinitely. Thus, the heat (energy) lost by the radiation of stars, the Sun and planets is replenished.
The force of gravity caused by gravity is the real result of the interaction, due to the change in the momentum of gravitons, and "gravitation" is an imaginary, seeming representation of the phenomena when bodies fall, which we observe in everyday life.
Unfortunately, in physics the concepts are mixed: gravity, gravitation, attraction and heaviness. Bodies do not tend to attract each other. Rapprochement inherent in bodies is a forced phenomenon, caused by a third material body or physical fields: magnetic, electric, gravitational and other known and still unknown forces.
We do not even assume the possibility of the phenomenon of cosmic bodies repulsing each other at a distance, and we do not imagine anything about the necessity of the "law of universal repulsion". This is while the physical explanation of the essence and the famous "law of universal gravitation" has not yet been found. On the physical essence of the phenomena of attraction and gravitation, the answer has not been found due to the fact that they do not exist. In nature, only repulsion and pushing are observed. Consequently, gravity cannot create either gravitation or attraction that is absent in nature.
Gravity causes gravity and thereby returns the thermal energy dissipated in outer space. Basically, the energy of the gravitational field is concentrated in massive cosmic bodies, where it passes into mass, and the mass, in turn, accumulates gravitational energy. It is obvious that the divine law of circulation is manifested here as well. As energy accumulates in the Sun and stars, radiation is renewed, which again leads to the return of energy to the general circulation of natural phenomena.
So, we can say that the problem of "thermal death" of the Universe disappears (disappears). An imaginary fear turned out to be a forced invention of the researchers.
All living things in nature, its charms, and the harmony of the universe are due to the divine laws of circulation and, in particular, concentration and return to the cycle of energy circulation, where gravity plays an important role. In the absence of a gravitational field, there would be neither life nor heat. Then everything would freeze. The Sun would cool down, and all the stars and other luminaries would go out. However, the divinely charming laws: circulation, recreation,
reproduction, renewal, renewal - dominate and maintain the stability of living and inanimate nature.
It is curious that in appearance the law of universal gravitation and the law of interaction of electric charges of Coulomb are identical. This remarkable feature in their similarity helps us to reveal the mechanism of action of gravity created by the gravitational field. It only remains to find out why attraction and repulsion are observed in electric charges, and only the “attraction” that seems to us is observed in the gravitational field.
A similar picture of gravitational attraction is observed when iron filings (objects) are attracted to a magnet. Here we also observe only attraction and do not observe the inherent repulsion of like poles.
The question arises. Why are iron objects attracted to both the north and south poles of a magnet, but there is no repulsion, just like in a gravitational field? How to explain the mechanism of such a coincidence?
Of course, the force arises when the momentum changes, i.e. amount of movement. A change in the latter at a constant mass can be conditioned only by changing the speed of the material body. With a change in speed, the energy state of the body changes in accordance with the principle of energy, which says: any change in speed causes an increase or decrease in the energy of the body. Therefore, the reason for such a coincidence of the forces of "attraction" in such different phenomena is explained by a change in the momentum (momentum) of the fluxes of magnetic and gravitational fields when interacting with the corresponding material bodies. It should be emphasized that in nature, as such, the existence of attraction of bodies is not possible. Therefore, H. Huygens rightly considered the idea of gravitation absurd.
In reality, the gravitational field permeates bodies, pushing them in its direction of motion. Then it turns out not the law of gravitation, but the law of motion of bodies in the gravitational field under the action of the energy of decelerating gravitons, caused by the resistance of material bodies to the gravitational field.
Summarizing the above, it follows that the reason for the unrevealed physical essence of the law of universal gravitation turned out to be the absence of the gravitation of bodies as such in nature.
The analysis carried out shows that in nature, so familiar to us for so many years, there is no "gravitation" of bodies to each other, and the observed convergence of bodies is caused by pushing them towards each other by a third body. The role of the third body can also be played by physical fields, including the gravitational field, which “presses” all material bodies to the surface of massive cosmic formations - planets and stars.
The universal law of interaction of the fields of forces of the system greatly facilitates the solution of many problems along with many problems of phenomena and processes of nature, including cosmology.
It is gratifying that the mathematical expression (description) of Newton's law of universal gravitation also finds its deep scientific justification in the revealed physical essence.
It turned out to be quite expedient for the knowledge of natural phenomena, when one proceeds from the universal law of interaction of the fields of forces of the system, which serves as a universal key for revealing the essence of observed phenomena and processes throughout the universe.
L and t er a t u r a:
1. Vavilov S.I. Isaac Newton. - M. - L.: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1945. -230 p.;
2. Kline M. Mathematics. The search for truth: Per. from English / Ed. IN AND. Arshinov, Yu.V. Sachkova. - M.: Mir, 1988. - 295s.;
3. Gadzhiev S.Sh. Interaction of system forces in technological processes (analysis, theory, practice). - Makhachkala: DGU Publishing House, 1993. - 210s.
Fundamental physical interactions: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak; main characteristics and significance in nature. The special role of electromagnetic interactions.
Fundamental Interactions– qualitatively different types of interaction between elementary particles and bodies composed of them
Evolution of theories of fundamental interactions:
Until the 19th century:
Gravitational (Galileo, Newton-1687);
Electrical (Gilbert, Cavendish-1773 and Coulomb-1785);
Magnetic (Gilbert, Aepinus-1759 and Coulomb-1789)
Turn of the 19th and 20th centuries:
Electromagnetic (electromagnetic theory of Maxwell-1863);
Gravitational (Einstein's General Theory of Relativity-1915)
The role of gravitational interactions in nature:
Gravitational interactions:
Law of universal gravitation;
The force of attraction between the planets of the solar system;
gravity
The role of electromagnetic interactions in nature:
Electromagnetic interactions:
Coulomb's law;
Intra- and interatomic interactions;
Friction force, elastic force, ...;
Electromagnetic waves (light)
The role of strong interactions in nature:
Strong interactions:
Short range (~10 -13 m);
Approximately 1000 times stronger than electromagnetic;
Decreases approximately exponentially;
Are saturated;
Responsible for the stability of the atomic nucleus
The role of weak interactions in nature
Weak interactions:
Very short range (~10 -18 m);
Approximately 100 times weaker than electromagnetic;
Are saturated;
Responsible for mutual transformations of elementary particles
2. Electric charge and its main properties: bipolarity, discreteness, invariance; microscopic carriers of electric charges, the concept of quarks; the law of conservation of electric charge; physical models of charged bodies.
Electric charge - it is a physical scalar quantity that characterizes the property of particles or bodies to enter into electromagnetic force interactions;
*denoted by q or Q;
*measured in SI units in coulombs
Basic properties of electric charge:
Bipolarity:
there are electric charges of two signs - positive (glass rod) and negative (ebonite rod);
*like charges repel, unlike charges attract
Additivity:
* the electric charge of a physical body is equal to the algebraic sum of the electric charges of the charged particles in it - microscopic carriers of electric charge
Resolution:
Basic properties of electric charge
Equality of modules of positive and negative elementary electric charges:
Ø Electron and proton charge modules are equal with high accuracy
Invariance:
the magnitude of the electric charge does not depend on the reference frame in which it is measured
this distinguishes it from body weight
Conservation law:
* the algebraic sum of electric charges of bodies (body parts, elementary particles) that make up a closed system remains unchanged for any interactions between them; including annihilation (disappearance) of matter
electron is the carrier of the negative elementary electric charge (
proton is the carrier of a positive elementary electric charge ( )
quark- a hypothetical fundamental particle in the Standard Model with an electric charge that is a multiple of e/3
Coulomb's law: physical essence and meaning in electrodynamics; vector form of the law and the principle of superposition of electrostatic forces; methods of experimental verification of the law and the limits of its applicability.
Coulomb's law - Two fixed point electric charges in a vacuum interact with each other with forces proportional to the magnitude of these charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
Electric dipole: physical model and dipole moment of the dipole; the electric field created by the dipole; forces acting from homogeneous and inhomogeneous electric fields on an electric dipole.
An electric dipole is a system consisting of two opposite point electric charges, the modules of which are equal:
Dipole arm; O is the center of the dipole;
Dipole moment of an electric dipole:
Unit of measure - \u003d Kl * m
Electric field created by an electric dipole:
Along the dipole axis:
Forces acting on an electric dipole
Uniform electric field:
Non-uniform electric field :
The concept of short range, electric field. Field interpretation of Coulomb's law. Electrostatic field strength, lines of force. An electric field created by a stationary point charge. The principle of superposition of electrostatic fields.
Long-range action is a concept of classical physics, according to which physical interactions are transmitted instantly without the participation of any material intermediary
Close interaction is a concept of classical physics, according to which physical interactions are transmitted with the help of a special material mediator at a speed not exceeding the speed of light in vacuum
An electric field is a special kind of matter, one of the components of the electromagnetic field that exists around charged particles and bodies, as well as when the magnetic field changes over time
An electrostatic field is a special kind of matter that exists around motionless charged particles and bodies.
In accordance with the concept of short-range action, motionless charged particles and bodies create an electrostatic field in the surrounding space, which has a force effect on other charged particles and bodies placed in this field.
Thus, the electrostatic field is a material carrier of electrostatic interactions. The power characteristic of the electrostatic field is a local vector physical quantity - the strength of the electrostatic field. The strength of the electrostatic field is indicated by the Latin letter: and is measured with the SI system of units in volts divided by the meter:
Definition: from here
For the field created by a stationary point electric charge:
Electrostatic field lines
For a graphic (visual) image of electrostatic fields, apply
Ø the tangent to the line of force coincides with the direction of the electrostatic field strength vector at a given point;
Ø the density of field lines (their number per unit of normal surface) is proportional to the modulus of the electrostatic field strength;
lines of force of the electrostatic field:
Ø are open (start on positive and end on negative charges);
Ø do not intersect;
Ø do not have kinks
Superposition principle for electrostatic fields
Formulation:
If an electrostatic field is created simultaneously by several motionless electrically charged particles or bodies, then the strength of this field is equal to the vector sum of the strengths of the electrostatic fields that are created by each of these particles or bodies independently of each other
6. Flow and divergence of a vector field. Electrostatic Gauss theorem for vacuum: integral and differential forms of the theorem; its physical content and meaning.
Electrostatic Gauss theorem
Vector field flow
Hydrostatic analogy:
For an electrostatic field:
The flow of the electrostatic field strength vector through the surface is proportional to the number of lines of force that cross this surface
Vector field divergence
Definition: 
Units:
Ostrogradsky's theorem: 
Physical meaning: vector divergence, indicates the presence of field sources
Formulation:
The flow of the electrostatic field intensity vector through a closed surface of arbitrary shape is proportional to the algebraic sum of electric charges of bodies or particles that are inside this surface.
The physical content of the theorem:
* Coulomb's law, since it is its direct mathematical consequence;
*field interpretation of Coulomb's law based on the concept of short range electrostatic interactions;
*principle of superposition of electrostatic fields
Application of the electrostatic Gauss theorem for the calculation of electrostatic fields: general principles; calculation of the field of a uniformly charged infinitely long thin straight filament and a uniformly charged infinite plane.
Application of the electrostatic Gauss theorem
Circulation and curl of a vector field. The work of the forces of the electrostatic field: the potential nature of the electrostatic field; potential difference between two points of the field, potential at a given point of the field; equipotential surfaces; calculation of the potential of the field created by a fixed point charge; superposition principle for potential.
Electrostatic field potential in vacuum
Force work:
-curvilinear integral.
- vector compass (integral char.)
; ; in-dif=infinitely small increment.
Vector field rotor : (local characteristic). We disassemble the surface bounded by , into elementary areas ;
- circulation along the contour;
- vector rotor.
Rot vector quantity is a vector. Rot- vortex.
Circulation coming to the surface rot=0 when projection=0.
If the work of the force = 0, then both rot=0 and circulation.
Stokes' theorem:
Circulation of a vector in a closed loop = flow. Rot through the surface bounded by this contour.
compass=0, then the field is without vortex.
Scalar function gradient. Relationship between the strength of an electrostatic field and its potential: mathematical notation and physical meaning for homogeneous and inhomogeneous fields; application for field calculation. Poisson equation.
GRADIENT FUNCTION
u = f(x, y, z) specified in some region. space (X Y Z), there is vector with projections denoted by symbols: grad where i, j, k- coordinate vectors. G. f. - there is a point function (x, y, z), i.e., it forms a vector field. Derivative in the direction of G. f. at this point reaches its maximum value and is equal to: 
Poisson equation is an elliptic partial differential equation that, among other things, describes
*electrostatic field,
*stationary temperature field,
*pressure field,
*velocity potential field in hydrodynamics.
This equation looks like:
In a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the equation takes the form:
Finding φ for a given f is an important practical problem since this is the usual way to find the electrostatic potential for a given charge distribution. In SI units:
where is the electrostatic potential (in volts), is the volumetric charge density (in coulombs per cubic meter), and is the vacuum permittivity (in farads per meter).
Electric current and its main characteristics: the physical essence of the phenomenon; drift speed, density and strength of electric current; the law of conservation of electric charge in the form of a continuity equation.
electric shock called the ordered movement of charged particles or charged macroscopic bodies. There are two types of electric currents - conduction currents and convection currents.
conduction current called the ordered movement in matter or vacuum of free charged particles - conduction electrons (in metals), positive and negative ions (in electrolytes), electrons and positive ions (in gases), conduction electrons and holes (in semiconductors), electron beams (in vacuum ). This current is due to the fact that free electric charges move in the conductor under the action of an applied electric field.
convection electric current called the current due to the movement in space of a charged macroscopic body
For the occurrence and maintenance of an electric conduction current, the following conditions are necessary:
1) the presence of free current carriers (free charges);
2) the presence of an electric field that creates an ordered movement of free charges;
3) on free charges, in addition to the Coulomb forces, must act outside forces non-electric nature; these forces are created by various current sources(galvanic cells, batteries, electric generators, etc.);
4) the electric current circuit must be closed.
The direction of movement of positive charges that form this current is conventionally taken as the direction of the electric current.
quantitative measure electric current is current I- scalar physical quantity determined by the electric charge passing through the cross section S conductor per unit of time:
A current whose strength and direction do not change over time is called permanent For DC
Electric current that changes over time is called variables. Unit of current strength - ampere(BUT). In SI, the definition of the unit of current strength is formulated as follows: 1A- this is the strength of such a direct current, which, when flowing through two parallel straight conductors of infinite length and negligible cross section, located in a vacuum at a distance 1m one from the other, creates between these conductors a force equal to each meter of length.
current density call a vector physical quantity coinciding with the direction of the current at the point under consideration and numerically equal to the ratio of the current strength dI passing through an elementary surface, perpendicular to the direction of the current, to the area of this surface:
Unit of current density - ampere per square meter (A/m2).
The density of direct electric current is the same over the entire cross section of a homogeneous conductor. Therefore, for direct current in a homogeneous conductor with a cross-sectional area S current strength is
The physical quantity determined by the work of external forces when moving a single positive charge is called the electromotive force (EMF) of the source:
EMF unit - volt(AT). External force acting on the charge can be expressed in terms of the field strength of external forces
Then the work of external forces to move the charge in a closed section of the circuit will be equal to:
Dividing by and taking into account (we get the expression for the EMF acting in the circuit:
Linear electrical circuits. Homogeneous section of a linear DC circuit: Ohm's law, the rule of signs; Joule-Lenz law, power balance; serial and parallel connections of homogeneous sections of the circuit.
When connected in series, all elements are connected to each other so that the section of the circuit that includes them does not have a single node. With a parallel connection, all elements included in the chain are united by two nodes and have no connections with other nodes, unless this contradicts the condition.
When the conductors are connected in series, the current strength in all conductors is the same.
With a parallel connection, the voltage drop between two nodes that combine the elements of the circuit is the same for all elements. In this case, the reciprocal of the total resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the resistances of the conductors connected in parallel.
serial connection
With a series connection of conductors, the current strength in any part of the circuit is the same:
The total voltage in the circuit when connected in series, or the voltage at the poles of the current source, is equal to the sum of the voltages in the individual sections of the circuit:
Resistors
Inductor
Electrical Capacitor
.
Parallel connection
The current strength in the unbranched part of the circuit is equal to the sum of the current strengths in individual parallel-connected conductors:
The voltage at the circuit sections AB and at the ends of all parallel-connected conductors is the same: 
Resistor
When resistors are connected in parallel, values \u200b\u200bare added that are inversely proportional to the resistance (that is, the total conductivity is the sum of the conductivities of each resistor)
If the circuit can be divided into nested subblocks, connected in series or in parallel with each other, then the resistance of each subblock is first calculated, then each subblock is replaced with its equivalent resistance, thus the total (desired) resistance is found.
For two resistors connected in parallel, their total resistance is:
If , then the total resistance is:
When resistors are connected in parallel, their total resistance will be less than the smallest of the resistances.
Inductor
Electrical Capacitor
Ohm's law for a circuit section. voltage ratio U between the ends of a metal conductor, which is a section of an electrical circuit, to the current strength I there is a constant in the circuit:
This value R called electrical resistance conductor.
The unit of electrical resistance in SI is ohm(Ohm). An electrical resistance of 1 ohm has such a section of the circuit in which, at a current strength of 1 A, the voltage is 1 V:
Experience shows that the electrical resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length. l and inversely proportional to the area S cross section:
The parameter constant for a given substance is called electrical resistivity substances.
The experimentally established dependence of the current strength I from voltage U and electrical resistance R section of the circuit is called Ohm's law for a chain section:
Joule-Lenz law formula and formulation
One way or another, both scientists investigated the phenomenon of heating conductors with electric current, they established the following pattern empirically: the amount of heat that is released in a current-carrying conductor is directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor, the square of the current strength and the passage time of the current.
Later, additional studies revealed that this statement is true for all conductors: liquid, solid and even gaseous. In this regard, an open regularity became a law.
So, consider the Joule-Lenz law itself and its formula, which looks like this:
Ohm's law formulation
The current strength in a circuit section is directly proportional to the voltage at the ends of this conductor and inversely proportional to its resistance:
I=U/R;
Ohm
installed that the resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area and depends on the substance of the conductor.
R = ρl / S,
where ρ is the resistivity, l is the length of the conductor, S is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
Power balance - a system of indicators that characterizes the correspondence of the sum of the load values of consumers of the energy system (IPS) and the required reserve power to the value of the available capacity of the energy system.
Definitions
To formulate the Kirchhoff rules, the concepts node, branch and circuit electrical circuit. A branch is any two-terminal network included in the circuit, for example, in Fig. the segment marked U 1 , I 1 is the branch. A node is a connection point of two or more branches (indicated by bold dots in the figure). A contour is a closed cycle of branches. Term closed loop means that starting from some node of the chain and once after passing through several branches and nodes, you can return to the original node. The branches and nodes traversed during such a bypass are usually called belonging to this contour. In this case, it must be borne in mind that a branch and a node can belong to several contours at the same time.
In terms of these definitions, Kirchhoff's rules are formulated as follows.
First rule
How much current flows into a node, so much flows out of it. i 2 + i 3 = i 1 + i 4 Kirchhoff's first rule (Kirchhoff's current rule) states that the algebraic sum of the currents at each node in any circuit is zero. In this case, the current flowing into the node is considered to be positive, and the current flowing out is negative:
In other words, how much current flows into the node, so much flows out of it. This rule follows from the fundamental law of conservation of charge.
Second rule
Kirchhoff's rule (Kirchhoff's voltage rule) states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops on all branches belonging to any closed circuit circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the EMF of the branches of this circuit. If there are no EMF sources (idealized voltage generators) in the circuit, then the total voltage drop is zero:
for constant voltages 
for variable voltages
In other words, when the circuit is completely bypassed, the potential, changing, returns to its original value. Kirchhoff's rules are valid for linear and non-linear linearized circuits for any nature of the change in time of currents and voltages.
Power balance- a system of indicators that characterizes the correspondence of the sum of the load values of consumers of the power system (IPS) and the required reserve power to the value of the available power of the power system.
Intrinsic and extrinsic conductivity of semiconductors: mechanisms of electron and hole conduction, donor and acceptor impurities, dependence of current carrier concentration on temperature. Thermistors.
Thermistor is a semiconductor resistor that uses the dependence of the electrical resistance of a semiconductor material on temperature. The thermistor is characterized by a large temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) (tens of times higher than this coefficient for metals), simplicity of the device, the ability to work in various climatic conditions with significant mechanical loads, and the stability of characteristics over time. The thermistor was invented by Samuel Ruben in 1930. There are thermistors with negative (thermistors) and positive (posistors) TKS. They are also called NTC thermistors and PTC thermistors, respectively. For posistors, the resistance also increases with increasing temperature, while for thermistors, on the contrary: as the temperature increases, the resistance decreases.
The operating mode of the thermistors depends on which section of the static current-voltage characteristic (CVC) the operating point is selected. In turn, the I–V characteristic depends both on the design, dimensions and main parameters of the thermistor, and on the temperature, thermal conductivity of the environment, thermal coupling between the thermistor and the medium
Conductors and dielectrics. Electrostatic induction in conductors: the physical essence of the phenomenon; equilibrium distribution of the strength of the electrostatic field and the density of electric charges in the volume and on the surface of the conductors.
A conductor is a body that contains a sufficient amount of free electric charges that can move under the influence of an electric field. In conductors, an electric current can occur under the action of an applied electric field. All metals, solutions of salts and acids, moist soil, the bodies of people and animals are good conductors of electrical charges.
Dielectric or insulator - a body that does not contain free electric charges inside. In insulators, electric current is not possible.
Dielectrics include - glass, plastic, rubber, cardboard, air. bodies made of dielectrics are called insulators. Absolutely non-conductive liquid - distilled, i.e. purified water. (any other water (tap or sea) contains some amount of impurities and is a conductor)
Free charges in a conductor are able to move under the action of an arbitrarily small force. Therefore, for the balance of charges in the conductor, the following conditions must be met:
The field strength inside the conductor must be zero; the potential inside the conductor must be constant.
The field strength on the surface of the conductor must be perpendicular to the surface
Therefore, the surface of the conductor at equilibrium of charges is equipotential. When the charges are in equilibrium, there can be no excess charges in any place inside the conductor - they are all distributed over the surface of the conductor with a certain density σ. Let us consider a closed surface in the form of a cylinder, the generators of which are perpendicular to the surface of the conductor. On the conductor surface there are free charges with surface density σ.
Because there are no charges inside the conductor, then the flux through the surface of the cylinder inside the conductor is zero. The flow through the top of the cylinder outside the conductor, according to the Gauss theorem, is
The electric displacement vector is equal to the surface density of free charges of the conductor or When an uncharged conductor is introduced into an external electrostatic field, free charges will begin to move: positive - along the field, negative - against the field. Then, positive charges will accumulate on one side of the conductor, and negative charges on the other. These charges are called INDUCED. The process of redistribution of charges will occur until the tension inside the conductor becomes equal to zero, and the lines of tension outside the conductor are perpendicular to its surface. Induced charges appear on the conductor due to displacement, i.e. are the surface density of displaced charges, and since that is why it was called the electric displacement vector.
11. Electrical capacitance: capacitive coefficients; electric capacitance of a capacitor and a solitary conductor; calculation of electric capacitance using the examples of a flat capacitor and a solitary conductive ball. Capacitor systems.
SOlitary is a conductor remote from other conductors, bodies, charges. The potential of such a conductor is directly proportional to the charge on it
It follows from experience that different conductors, being equally charged Q1 = Q2, acquire different potentials φ1¹φ2 due to the different shape, size and environment surrounding the conductor (ε). Therefore, for a solitary conductor, the formula is valid
Where is the capacitance of the solitary conductor. The capacitance of a solitary conductor is equal to the charge ratio q, the message of which to the conductor changes its potential by 1 Volt. In the SI system, capacitance is measured in farads.
Ball capacity
The capacitance of solitary conductors is very small. For practical purposes, it is necessary to create such devices that allow the accumulation of large charges at small sizes and potentials. A CAPACITOR is a device used to store charge and electrical energy. The simplest capacitor consists of two conductors, between which there is an air gap, or a dielectric (air is also a dielectric). The conductors of the capacitor are called plates, and their location relative to each other is selected so that the electric field is concentrated in the gap between them. The capacitance of a capacitor is understood as a physical quantity C, equal to the ratio of the charge q accumulated on the plates to the potential difference between the plates.
Let us calculate the capacitance of a flat capacitor with plate area S, surface charge density σ, permittivity ε of the dielectric between the plates, and the distance between the plates d. The field strength is
Using the relationship between Δφ and E, we find 
For a cylindrical capacitor: capacitance of a flat capacitor.
For a spherical capacitor 
Polarization of dielectrics: the physical essence of the phenomenon; polarization (bound) charges; polarization (polarization vector); connection of the polarization vector with the surface and volume density of bound charges.
Polarization of dielectrics- a phenomenon associated with a limited displacement of bound charges in a dielectric or the rotation of electric dipoles, usually under the influence of an external electric field, sometimes under the influence of other external forces or spontaneously.
Related charges. As a result of the polarization process, uncompensated charges arise in the volume (or on the surface) of the dielectric, which are called polarization charges, or bound charges. Particles with these charges are part of the molecules and, under the action of an external electric field, are displaced from their equilibrium positions without leaving the molecule in which they are part. Bound charges are characterized by surface density
A dielectric placed in an external electric field is polarized by this field. The polarization of a dielectric is the process of acquiring a non-zero macroscopic dipole moment.
Learning without reflection is harmful, and thinking without learning is dangerous. Confucius
Fundamental branch of natural science - Physics, from Greek "nature".
One of the main works of the ancient Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle was called "Physics". Aristotle wrote: The science of nature studies mainly bodies and magnitudes, their properties and types of movement, and in addition, the beginnings of this kind of being.
One of the tasks of physics is to reveal the simplest and most general in nature, in the discovery of such laws from which one could logically deduce a picture of the world - A. Einstein thought so.
The easiest- the so-called primary elements: molecules, atoms, elementary particles, fields, etc. General properties matter is considered to be motion, space and time, mass, energy, etc.
When studying, the complex is reduced to the simple, the concrete to the general.
Friedrich Kekule(1829 - 1896) proposed hierarchy of natural sciences in the form of its four successive main steps: mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology.
First stage The development of physics and natural science covers the period from the time of Aristotle to the beginning of the 17th century, and is called the ancient and medieval stage.
Second phase classical physics (classical mechanics) until the end of the 19th century. associated with Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
In the history of physics, the concept of atomism, according to which matter has a discontinuous, discrete structure, that is, it consists of atoms. ( Democritus, 4th century BC - atoms and emptiness).
Third stage modern physics discovered in 1900. Max Planck(1858-1947), who proposed a quantum approach to the evaluation of accumulated experimental data, based on a discrete concept.
The universality of physical laws confirms the unity of nature and the universe as a whole.
Macroworld is the world of physical bodies, consisting of microparticles. The behavior and properties of such bodies are described by classical physics.
Microworld or the world of microscopic particles, describes mainly quantum physics.
Megaworld- the world of stars, galaxies and the Universe, located outside the Earth.
Types of fundamental interactions
So far, four types of basic fundamental interactions:
gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, weak.
1. Gravitational interaction characteristic of all material objects, consists in the mutual attraction of bodies and is determined fundamental law of universal gravitation: between two point bodies there is an attractive force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gravitational interaction in processes microworld does not play a significant role. However, in macroprocesses he has a decisive role. For example, the motion of the planets of the solar system occurs in strict accordance with the laws of gravitational interaction.
R the radius of its action, as well as the electromagnetic interaction, is unlimited.
2. Electromagnetic interaction associated with electric and magnetic fields. electromagnetic theory Maxwell links electric and magnetic fields.
Various aggregate states of a substance (solid, liquid and gaseous), the phenomenon of friction, elastic and other properties of a substance are determined forces of intermolecular interaction, which is electromagnetic in nature.
3. Strong interaction is responsible for the stability of nuclei and extends only within the size of the nucleus. The stronger the nucleons interact in the nucleus, the more stable it is, the more it binding energy.
Bond energy is determined by the work that must be done to separate the nucleons and remove them from each other at such distances at which the interaction becomes equal to zero.
As the size of the nucleus increases, the binding energy decreases. So, the nuclei of elements at the end of the periodic table are unstable and can decay. Such a process is often called radioactive decay.
4. Weak interaction short-range and describes some types of nuclear processes.
The smaller the dimensions of material systems, the more strongly their elements are connected.
Development unified theory all known fundamental interactions(theory of everything) will allow for the conceptual integration of modern data on nature.
In natural science, there are three kinds of matter: matter (physical bodies, molecules, atoms, particles), field (light, radiation, gravity, radio waves) and physical vacuum.
In the microcosm, many of whose properties are of a quantum mechanical nature, matter and field can be combined (in the spirit of the concept of corpuscular-wave dualism).
System organization matter expresses the orderliness of the existence of matter.
Structural organization of matter- those specific forms in which it manifests itself (exists).
Under the structure of matter usually understood is its structure in the microcosm, existence in the form of molecules, atoms, elementary particles, etc.
Strength- a physical measure of the interaction of bodies.
Mass of bodies is a source of force in accordance with the law of universal gravitation. Thus, the concept of mass, introduced for the first time by Newton, is more fundamental than forces.
According to quantum field theory, particles with mass can be born from the physical vacuum at a sufficiently high concentration of energy.
Energy thus appears as an even more fundamental and general concept than mass, since energy is inherent not only in matter, but also in massless fields.
Energy- a universal measure of various forms of movement and interaction.
Newton's law of universal gravitation is force of gravitational interaction F. F = G* t1 * t2 / r2 where G is the gravitational constant.
Traffic in its most general form, it is a change in the state of a physical system.
For quantitative description of movement ideas about space and time which have undergone significant changes over a long period of development of natural science.
In his fundamental Principles of Natural Philosophy, Newton wrote:
“..Time and space are, as it were, receptacles for themselves and everything that exists.”
Time expresses the order of change of physical states
Time is an objective characteristic of any physical process or phenomenon; it is universal.
Talking about time without regard to changes in any real bodies or systems is meaningless from a physical point of view.
However, in the process of development of physics with the advent of special relativity there was a statement:
Firstly, the flow of time depends on the speed of the frame of reference. At a sufficiently high speed, close to the speed of light, time slows down, i.e., relativistic slowdown of time.
Secondly, the gravitational field leads to gravitational slowing down time.
It is possible to speak only about local time in some frame of reference. In this regard, time is not an entity independent of matter. It flows at different speeds under different physical conditions. Time is always relative .
Space - expresses the order of coexistence of physical bodies.
The first complete theory of space - geometry of Euclid. It was created about 2000 years ago. Euclid's geometry operates with ideal mathematical objects that exist as if out of time, and in this sense the space in this geometry is the ideal mathematical space.
Newton introduced the concept of absolute space, which can be completely empty and exists regardless of the presence of physical bodies in it. The properties of such a space are determined by Euclidean geometry.
Until the middle of the 19th century, when non-Euclidean geometries were created, none of the natural scientists doubted the identity of real physical and Euclidean spaces.
For description mechanical motion of a body in absolute space you need to specify something else reference body- consideration of a single body in empty space is meaningless.
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