Schools and educational institutions in the 19th century. Education in the Russian Empire

Secondary School No. 60

Project work

Prepared by:

Natalia Maksimchuk

Yuri Kolesnikov

Vladislav Vileyto

Margarita Krupenya

Work manager

Methodist teacher

Tatiana Anufrieva

First half of the 19th century

Education system

AT early XIX century, this system has undergone a radical restructuring.

The secondary school program was expanded and complicated, and education was extended to

7 years (successively in four types of educational institutions - parochial

school, county and main and main schools and gymnasiums). With famous

reservations to general education can be attributed to those created in the second half

century missionary schools for children of non-Russian peoples of the Volga region (Tatars,

Chuvash, etc.), where translators, teachers and lower Orthodox

clergy. The main form of education for the tax-paying population continued

remain literacy schools. For noble children, a network of closed

educational institutions. (Page Corps, late 50s; "Educational

Society of Noble Maidens" at the Smolny Monastery (Smolny Institute),

1764; Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, 1811, etc.). These educational establishments enjoyed

the most financial support from the government. For comparison: one

Smolny Institute received 100 thousand rubles a year, while all

public schools of the whole province - only 10 thousand rubles, moreover, part of these

money was intended for the needs of hospitals, almshouses, etc.

vocational art schools closed type, in which not

accepted the children of serfs (Ballet school at the Moscow

educational home, 1773; Academy of Arts, 1757, which gave

vocational training in the field of painting, sculpture and architecture, etc.).

By the end of the 18th century, there were 550 educational institutions in the country with a number of students

about 60-70 thousand

Although the creation of a system of public schools and other general education

schools was an important contribution to the formation of the Russian secular school, but

proclaimed "all-class", it actually remained an appendage of the class

education systems. This situation reflected the attitude of the authorities towards

dissemination of knowledge among the lower classes. "Cherny should not give

education, - Ekaterina wrote to the Moscow Governor-General P.S.

Saltykov, - since she will know as much as you and I, then

will obey us to the extent that he obeys now. This

the situation did not change until the beginning of the 20th century.

Significant progress has been made in the field of higher education.

At the beginning of the XIX century. 5 universities were formed - Derpt (Tartu),

Kazansky, Kharkovsky, etc. The increased number of schools has made it relevant

the problem of training teachers, who were sorely lacking (for

each county school, for example, had an average of 2 teachers,

teaching 7-8 subjects each). Petersburg Main Folk

school for the training of teachers of public schools, opened in 1782, was

transformed into the Pedagogical Institute. Pedagogical institutes were

established at all universities.

home education

If we determine the effectiveness of the educational system by the number

bright pupils, then best of all in Russia she proved herself just

system of home education and upbringing. Each family created its own

educational structure as a result of creative communication of parents,

teachers and children. However, this arbitrary construction had a rigid

Governess - home tutor - tutor

Here is the triad that made up the system of home education and upbringing.

A foreign governess was usually invited to a child 5-6 (sometimes 3-4)

years and settled next to the nursery. In order to instill good manners in a child,

the governess ate with the child, walked, played with him. And worked with him

- in a foreign language. For the time being, they studied their native language without

programs and teachers. By the age of 10-12, the child was able to read on

books in two or three languages from the home library.

And then it was time to invite a home mentor. That's where

the real pedagogical creativity of parents began. governess

foreign language was confirmed by foreign origin. And where

prepared for home tutors? Nowhere! Just like today. Who was invited to

mentors? Yes, anyone, to the best of insight and ingenuity

parents.

If a child mastered the house with a governess, then with a home tutor

he conquered the world. The home tutor was a friend to the child, a confidante,

patron, travel companion, play partner,

a role model, a positive example. That is, everyone. He could be

an eccentric, but could not help but be a person, and the lack of a teacher's diploma

did not bother.

In Russian literature of the 19th century, home mentors were portrayed

much more often than, say, gymnasium teachers. Memoirs

testify that in the last century, almost every person from

wealthy family had at least one good mentor who left

good and grateful memory. So, A. S. Griboyedov, who did not forget in his

comedies to remember with a well-aimed word and home teachers, the scientist brought up

encyclopedist I. B. Petrosilius, who served in the university library.

A talented home tutor was I. A. Krylov, for some time

who lived in the family of Prince Golitsyn. As F.F. Vigel recalled, “despite

his laziness, out of boredom, he offered Prince Golitsyn to teach Russian

his younger sons, and, consequently, those who study with them. And in this case

he showed himself to be a master. The lessons were passed almost all in conversations; he knew how

arouse curiosity, loved questions and answered them as intelligently as

as clear as he wrote his fables. He was not content with one Russian

language, and mixed with his instructions many moral teachings and

explanations of various subjects from other sciences.

Of the Russian home tutors, the most famous was V.

A. Zhukovsky, who raised Emperor Alexander II. Before entering into

position Zhukovsky presented to Nicholas I the "Plan of the exercise", in which he outlined

the principles of the special system of upbringing and education of the future created by him

monarch, as well as their pedagogical and political views. And being

adopted into the house, first of all obliged the crowned parent to follow

approved plan.

In addition to a mentor permanently living in the house, parents often invited

and visiting teachers. “We take the tramps both to the house and by tickets,” -

Famusov lamented. At the end of the lesson, the teacher was given a ticket, which

later served as a document for payment. Among the visiting teachers prevailed

Russian people are students forced to give lessons to pay for their

training, seminarians. They often came from educated families and

had more profound knowledge than many of their foreign counterparts.

But among those who give paid lessons, they did not hesitate to be famous people.

So, the famous Dobuzhinsky gave drawing lessons to little Volodya

Nabokov, and his mother, when she was a girl, taught zoology

famous scientist Shimkevich.

At the same time, the child could attend the gymnasium at the same time, but this is not at all

does not mean that parents refused a home tutor and tutors.

The case was for everyone.

Principles of home education

All successful examples home education allow you to highlight the main

its principle is trust in the teacher, to whom parents partly gave their

educational rights, up to the right to "execute and pardon".

Trusting the home teacher, the parents avoided openly interfering

in the educational process and emphasized respect for the teacher

routine and acted as the highest court. Insincerity between

family and home "school" in this case was completely excluded - otherwise

a tutor or mentor would not be able to get along in the house. He was usually treated

as a member of the family and a participant in all its joys and concerns. Family knowledge

way of life, the situation in the house, the character of the pupil helped the "school" to find

and make sound educational decisions.

In the middle of the 19th century, special methods of home

education, which took into account the accumulated experience. They provided

"educational talks" and "educational walks" during which

it was possible to explain rather complicated things in a relaxed way -

moral and philosophical ideas, logical categories,

classification of biological processes and much more. Conversations

classes. They were supposed to serve to summarize what was studied and seen on

walks, as well as for thinking aloud and developing speech. Transfer experience

knowledge through easy communication was reflected in children's literature - in

the genre of edifying conversation (teacher with student, father with son, etc.).

"Conversations of a prudent mentor with well-bred pupils",

“Letters from a mother to her son about righteous honor and to her daughter about virtues,

decent to the female sex" entered the circle of the few publications at that time

for youth in Russian.

Teaching “jokingly” did not at all exclude systematic lessons (“classes”)

and self-study to them. Usually for a course in a company

two or three more children living in the neighborhood were taken to the pupil. In that

a small team developed communication skills with peers, the spirit

competition had a good effect on the quality of education. Regular classes

supplemented by communication with a mentor while doing household chores

or on walks, which were obligatory at any time of the year and at any

The perfect portrait of a governess

A. P. Kern draws the ideal image of a governess in his memoirs:

it was about time that two governesses were discharged from England, m-lle Benoit came to

Bernovo at the end of 1808. My parents immediately entrusted us with the full

order. No one dared to interfere in her business, to do any

remarks, disturb the peace of her studies with us and disturb her in a peaceful

orphanage where we studied. We were placed in a room adjacent to hers.

bedroom.

M-lle Benoit was a very serious, reserved girl of 47 years old, with a very

pleasant, intelligent and good-looking. She was always dressed in white

loved this color, that she was delighted with white hare fur and made it on

it is a coat of expensive silk fabric. Her feet were cold and she held them

always on a bag of hot prunes. She herself

dressed and cleaned the room herself. When everything was ready in it, then

opened the doors and invited us to breakfast. We were served coffee

tea, eggs, bread and butter and honey. At dinner she always drank a glass of white wine.

after soup and the same after dinner and loved very black bread. After

breakfast, we walked around the garden, in spite of any weather, then sat down to

lessons. We taught all subjects, of course, in French and Russian.

studied for only six weeks during the holidays for which he traveled from Moscow

student Marchinsky. Mlle Benoit was so good at getting us to learn

variety of occupations, patient and clear interpretation, without exaltation even

we studied, without any burden, the whole day, except for the time

walks and hours of lunch, breakfast and dinner. We loved our lessons and classes,

(like knitting and sewing) near m-lle Benoit, because they loved and respected her

and revered her power over us, excluding any other will.

No one dared to say a word to us! She also took care of our toilet,

grew our hair, tied our heads with brown velvet, similar to

our eyes. She took a lively part in everything that touched us and

our families ... At dusk she made us lie down on the floor to

to straighten their backs, or ordered them to walk around the room and bow as they went,

slipping or laying down on the bed and taught us, standing by the bed, to sing

French romances. She talked about her students in London, about

William Tell and Switzerland".

Ideal home mentor Vasily Zhukovsky

“Teaching according to the proposed plan can then only be a perfect success,

when nothing, in any case, will disturb the order, once and for all

established; when both persons, and time, and everything around the Grand Duke

will be subject without any limitation to those people to whom His Highness

will be assigned. Sovereign Emperor, having approved this plan, may it please to be

its first performer.

The door of the training room during the lecture must be inviolable;

no one should allow himself to enter into it at a time that the great

the prince will devote to the occupation; of this rule should not be for anyone

exceptions. The Grand Duke will learn to value his time when he sees

that they are valued by others, and that the strictest

accuracy. His Highness, in the course of his upbringing, must not read

nothing more than their duties. He must move forward steadily and evenly.

step: inviolable order is the main condition for this ... Expression

the approval of the Sovereign Emperor should be the greatest reward for our

pupil, and the expression of disapproval of his majesty - the most serious

punishment. It is necessary to cherish this important means very much. I dare to think that

the sovereign emperor should never praise the grand duke for diligence,

but simply to show your pleasure with affectionate treatment ... to the Grand Duke

one should get used to seeing in the performance of one's duties a simple

a necessity that deserves no special approval; such

habit forms firmness of character. Every single good deed

very unimportant; only continuous constancy in goodness

deserves attention and praise. His highness must learn

to act without reward: the thought of the father must be his secret conscience...

The same can be said about the expression of parental disapproval. His Highness

should tremble at the thought of his father's reproach. The sovereign will always know about

his petty offenses, but let it be a secret between his majesty and

mentors; let the pupil feel his guilt and punish himself

painful feeling. But to experience the obvious wrath of his father should be for him

the only occasion in life ... "

From "Plan

teachings "by Vasily Zhukovsky, 1826.

Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens

Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens - the first in Russia

privileged female secondary general educational educational

a closed institution for the daughters of nobles. Founded in 1764 under

Resurrection Smolny convent in St. Petersburg. Upbringing

lasted from 6 to 16 years. Closed after 1917.

institutions." This name was explained by the fact that long before its end

he found himself in the center of a large educational complex: in 1764 in the southern

the monastery building housed the newly founded Educational

a society of noble maidens, and a year later a "school for

young girls of non-noble origin" (Smolny Institute and

Meshchanskoe school). Later, Catherine ordered to establish in Smolny

community of nuns, selecting for this from other monasteries twenty "old women

honest and good living”, which could be used for

services for "noble" pupils. It turned out to find such "old women"

not at all simple. From the Moscow and Smolensk monasteries they hardly got

fourteen nuns, distinguished by the dignity that "they know how to read and write."

However, they soon disappeared from the monastery. founded in it

educational institutions existed until the Great October revolution.

The architectural monuments erected in the vicinity of the monastery were laid

the beginning of women's education in Russia and thus played an important role in

history of national education. Before their discovery of literate Russian women

even among the nobility there were very few, and even if one was found in

another class, it was a "very strange phenomenon."

The emergence of the Educational Society was affected by the impact

French Enlightenment Writers. Catherine, approving the charter

educational society, introduced into it a clause depriving parents of the right

to demand the child back before the end of the full twelve-year course

learning. The institute accepted only "girls of natural (hereditary)

nobility and daughters of officials with military ranks of at least

colonels, and in civil terms not lower than a state adviser. Grown in

artificial, greenhouse conditions for "decoration of the family and society",

"Smolyanka" also replenished the court staff - the empress chose from them

to myself, ladies and ladies-in-waiting.

The daughters of grooms, soldiers, deacons, lackeys and

other "mean people". These girls were prepared "for use with all

women's work and needlework, that is, sewing, weaving, knitting, cooking, washing,

clean...". However, the graduates of the school also had their "highest

bestowed" privileges analogous to the advantages enjoyed by

students of the Academy of Arts: if any of them married

serf, her husband received freedom, children born

from their marriage.

Throughout their existence, both educational institutions

were under the auspices of the "highest persons" who personally looked through

lists of those accepted with all the data about them and their parents. Nude from the list

"daughter of a father known for his bad behavior" was crossed out, in another

once - the daughter of an exile. In 1808, a daughter was presented for admission to the school.

“camera lackey from the blacks,” about whom the list said: “Healthy, turning off

true color of arapka. The resolution of the empress read: "Do not take her."

Of course, the living conditions and training of pupils in the school were

much worse than at the institute, although in Smolny the level of teaching

was not always high. In addition to general education,

institute girls were taught music, dance, drawing, and performance

theatrical plays. Performances in Smolny were prepared by the best dance masters,

Kapellmeisters and artists of court theaters. Things were much worse

with science education. The commission of public schools noted that the pupils had “very

insufficient knowledge of foreign languages and especially one's own Russian, and

since all subjects were taught in French, “which girls are quite

they do not understand”, then they received very weak knowledge. Later teach

began in their native language and the situation improved somewhat. But genuine

the turning point came only in the middle of the nineteenth century, when the inspector

classes of both institutions was appointed a wonderful teacher-Democrat

Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky.

Having carried out a radical reform of education and training, Ushinsky attracted

teaching at the institute and school of young, democratically minded

teachers, under him for the first time the curricula in both institutions were

equalized. The leading place in them was occupied by the native language and literature. Ushinsky

managed to achieve the almost complete eradication of the traditional scornful

the relationship of "noble smolyanka" to "petty bourgeois". Such democratization

Smolny, of course, caused discontent in the "higher circles." boss

Institute and conservative teachers launched a campaign against Ushinsky,

which ended with a denunciation accusing him of political

unreliability. Outraged by the very fact of the denunciation, Ushinsky left

Smolny. However, his stay there did not go unnoticed. "Thanks to the energy

and the talent of one person, - the historian notes, - in some three years

the vast educational

institution, hitherto closed, routine. Some of its alumni are now

enrolled in Women's Higher and Pedagogical Courses, in Women's Medical

institute.

The Smolny Institute was intended primarily to inspire its

pets "unshakable devotion to the throne and reverent

gratitude to their august patrons. But it's not worth it, maybe

forget that, along with the ladies-in-waiting of the empresses and favorites of the emperors,

his pupils were Radishchev's wife, who followed her husband into exile and there

deceased, wives and sisters of the Decembrists, mother of the hero of Plevna, General Skobelev,

herself in Russian-Turkish war who served in the infirmary and was killed in Bulgaria, and

also mothers and wives of other glorious sons of Russia.

The building of the Meshchansky School is still used for educational purposes - in

students of the Faculty of Geography and the Faculty of Applied

Mathematics of the Leningrad University.

The Educational Society for Noble Maidens was located in the monastery

buildings much longer than the school. Only at the beginning of the next century

the architect Quarenghi built for him on the south side of the monastery, on the spot,

where there was a "master's yard" with a service infirmary, a bakery,

sheds and other things, a new building.

Young ladies were taught not only languages and manners, but also patience. That's how

recalled the years of study, the former "Smolyanka" Anna Vladimirovna Suslova:

In Smolny there was discipline, like in the army. Physically I had to

hard. My first impression of Smolny is cold. It's cold everywhere

bedrooms, classrooms, dining rooms. The temperature is not higher than plus 16 degrees. In the morning

I had to wash ice water to the waist. This lady was watching

(a teacher attached to a class). Then everyone got dressed.

and walked down the corridor to the church, which was at the opposite end

building. During prayer, one should stand still, looking ahead. It is forbidden

turn your head, step from foot to foot. holiday service

went on for a long time, and the girls sometimes fainted.

Posture was very well taken care of. The girls dressed in dresses

a whalebone is inserted so that the waist is tightened straight. God forbid

hunch over. Cool lady was always with us and watched the posture,

for a haircut. It was necessary to be completely "licked" so that not a single

the hair did not hang. There should be one pigtail, two were not allowed. into her

woven black ribbon. Any coquetry, desire to stand out

pursued very strictly. They always walked in pairs, silently. You can't smile.

For a smile, they immediately reduced several points for behavior.

The education was generally good. We learned a lot of languages

thanks to the fact that we were not allowed to speak Russian. Only on-

German or French. Everywhere: in bedrooms, while relaxing, etc. taught

cook, sew, embroider, dance, play a musical instrument.

You could choose one of three: violin, piano or harp.

I didn't like the Smolny. I was chilly, coughing and half the time

spent in the infirmary. It was difficult for me to maintain this regime. But I do have

developed great patience. It helped me a lot in my life.

Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum

students: they were on average 12 years old, but after completing their academic

institutions they could not study anywhere else. It was the first course

Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum - a new educational institution for Russia, and

remaining the only one of its kind.

In this educational institution, according to the plan of Mikhail Speransky, the nearest

adviser to Tsar Alexander I, a small number of noble children had to

study, then to participate in the management of Russia.

There were only thirty boys. Among them were representatives of the noble

families such as Prince Alexander Gorchakov; were the children of royal officials,

like Ivan Pushchin, among them was the great-grandson of the famous "Arap Peter the Great"

Abram Petrovich Hannibal - Alexander Pushkin.

Lyceum students were waiting for 6 years of study. Strict regime of the day, in which

"classes" and walks, "dancing" and fencing alternated. Home ride

it was impossible - all the lyceum students lived in the Lyceum in small rooms, on which

wooden partitions that do not reach the ceiling divided the large hall.

Studied many subjects: foreign languages, history, geography,

mathematics, law (legal sciences), artillery and fortification (the science of

military installations), physics. In the senior years, classes were conducted without strict

programs - the approved charter determined only the sciences to be studied:

provided knowledge in the areas of moral, physical,

mathematical, historical sciences, literature and languages. studied

seriously, but did not miss the opportunity to joke. Once at a lesson, a lyceum student

Myasoedov described the sunrise in verse as follows: “A ruddy

the king of nature ... "Another lyceum student (Pushkin or Illichevsky, it is not known exactly)

immediately continued:

"And the astonished nations

Don't know what to start

Go to bed or get up."

Teachers were respected and loved. They understood their pupils well.

Ivan Pushchin's memoirs about the mathematics teacher Kartsov have been preserved,

who called Pushkin to the blackboard and set the task. Pushkin hesitated for a long time

legs crossed and silently wrote some formulas. Kartsov asked him

Finally: “What happened? What does X equal? Pushkin, smiling, replied:

"Zero!" - "Good! You, Pushkin, in my class everything ends in zero.

Sit down and write poetry."

Six years of study have flown by. Fifteen final exams passed in 17

celebrate the lyceum anniversary, remembering those who are no longer there ... The first

Nikolai Rzhevsky will leave (in 1817, shortly after graduation), the last -

Alexander Gorchakov (in 1883).

Gorchakov will become chancellor (highest official), Küchelbecker -

Decembrist, Pushkin - "the sun of Russian poetry."

Wherever fate takes us

And happiness wherever it leads

We are all the same: the whole world is a foreign land for us;

Fatherland to us Tsarskoye Selo.

The lyceum was an educational institution that repeated in miniature the fate and

the nature of many reforms and undertakings of the "days of Alexander's wonderful beginning":

brilliant promises, broad ideas with complete ill-conceived general

tasks, goals and plan. The accommodation and external arrangements of the new educational

institutions received a lot of attention, questions of the form of lyceum students were discussed

the emperor himself. However, the teaching plan was ill-conceived, the composition

professors - randomly, most of them did not answer in terms of their training and

pedagogical experience even the requirements of a good gymnasium. And the Lyceum gave

law graduates who graduated from a higher educational institution. It wasn't clear

the future of lyceum students is also determined. According to the original plan, the Lyceum should

the younger brothers of Alexander I, Nikolai and Mikhail, were also brought up.

This idea probably belonged to Speransky, who, like many

progressive people of those years, was alarmed by how the characters developed

great princes, on whom the fate of millions of people could depend in the future.

Growing up, Nikolai and Mikhail Pavlovich got used to the belief in indifference and

divine origin of his power and with a deep conviction that

the art of management consists in "sergeant-major science"...

These plans, apparently, caused opposition from Empress Maria

Fedorovna. The general offensive of reaction before the war of 1812, expressed

in particular, in the fall of Speransky, led to the fact that the initial

plans were discarded, as a result of which Nicholas I entered in 1825 on

throne monstrously unprepared ... The Lyceum was located in Tsarskoye Selo -

summer imperial residence, in the wing of the Catherine Palace. Already

the location made it like a court educational institution. However,

apparently not without the influence of Speransky, who hated court circles and

trying to limit them as much as possible. political role in the state and

influence on the emperor, the first director of the Lyceum V. F. Malinovsky tried

protect your educational institution from the influence of the court by strict isolation:

The lyceum was isolated from the surrounding life, pupils were released outside

its walls are extremely reluctant and only in special cases, visiting relatives

limited.

There was an indisputable positive side in the lyceum classes: it was

that “lyceum spirit”, which was remembered for the rest of my life by the students of the first -

"Pushkin" - issue and which very soon became the subject of numerous

denunciations. It was this “spirit” that Nicholas I was diligently knocking out of the Lyceum later.

When the Lyceum was created, it was assumed that they would study in it

the grand dukes are the younger brothers of Emperor Alexander I. Therefore, many

sought to put their children into it, saying modern language,

prestigious (respected) educational institution. Here is how he writes about the first lyceum

course Natan Yakovlevich Eidelman, writer, historian, literary critic.

“... Members of the royal family in the end “did not get” to the Lyceum, but between

that summer of 1811 there was a competition because there were thirty places

much more willing. One (Gorchakov) will be helped by a sonorous title (prince -

Rurikovich). Others - important posts held by relatives: Modest

Korf's father is a general, a prominent official of justice; ten year old Arkady

Martynov is still small for the Lyceum, but he is the godson of Speransky himself, and his father

writer, director of the department of public education; Ivan Malinovsky

fifteen years old, he is already called a "foreign collegium student", but his father

him, Vasily Fedorovich, is appointed director of the Lyceum and wants to "test"

a new place on my own son...

More and more - courtier parents, or retired, or low

officials; there are no offspring of the richest families like the Stroganovs,

Yusupovs, Sheremetevs ... The aristocrats of their children in some kind of Lyceum are not

give back (especially when they found out that the royal brothers did not go there

determined): after all, they would have to study on equal terms in the same class and,

maybe get slapped on the back of the head from petty, low-ranking or

(it's scary to think!), say, from Vladimir Volkhovsky, the son of a poor hussar

from the Poltava province; the boy goes to the Lyceum ... as the first student

Moscow university boarding house.

From the book of N. Ya. Eidelman

"Our union is beautiful..."

60-90s of the XIX century

School, education and printing

The fall of serfdom and liberal reforms education caused

significant changes in public education. In the 1860s and 1890s, there was a marked increase

the literacy rate of the population (on average 3 times), in the city more than

in the village (2.5 times). According to the data of the All-Russian population census

1897, the average literacy rate in the Russian Empire was 21.1%,

among men - 29.3%, among women - 13.1%. At the same time, higher and secondary

Just over 1% of the population had an education. Thus, the overall level

education in Russia to the second half of XIX in. determined the initial

In the 1960s, the government carried out reforms in the field of education.

"Regulations on primary public schools" 1864. allowed, in particular,

reopening of elementary schools public organizations(organs of the city

self-government and zemstvos in the countryside). This allowed the general public

movement for the creation of public schools (Moscow and St. Petersburg committees

literacy and other public educational organizations) to implement

the advanced pedagogical ideas of K. D. Ushinsky (1824 - 1870 / 71)

and his students. Under the influence of the public, primary education received

significant momentum for further development. Along with parochial

schools (teachers for whom were prepared by church teachers' schools,

under the jurisdiction of the Synod), Zemstvo three-year

schools (at this time the most common type of elementary school),

taught in which representatives of the zemstvo intelligentsia, as a rule,

true devotees, bearers of democratic culture. Their training was

put better: in addition to the usual subjects for the parochial school -

writing, reading, four rules arithmetic and the law of God, were studied here

geography, natural history, history.

Secondary education simultaneously with humanitarian classical

gymnasiums (the number of students in which grew in the 60-80s by almost 3 times

) gave schools - since 1864 real ones (the curriculum included a large

body of knowledge in the exact and natural sciences) and since 1873 commercial (

where they studied - accounting, commodity science, etc.). During the reform period

women's gymnasiums were opened, of which there were about 200 by the 1990s;

for the daughters of the Orthodox clergy, there were about 60 diocesan

schools. During the period of counter-reforms, the famous circular "about the cook's children" 1887

closed access to education for the poor.

In the pre-reform era, qualitative changes were outlined in higher

education. New universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk. Liberal

university charter of 1863, which granted these institutions

autonomy, led not only to an increase in the number of students (in the 60-90s, almost in

3 times), but also to the democratization of their composition, however, unevenly (in 1897

Petersburg University, the proportion of children of nobles and officials amounted to

about 2/3, and in Kharkov - less than 40%). At the country's universities

to concentrate the best scientific personnel (A. M. Butlerov, D. I. Mendeleev, K.

A. Timiryazev and others), scientific work has revived and educational

graduate level. The first sprouts of higher female education appeared -

higher women's courses that trained doctors and teachers (Alarchinsky in

Petersburg and Lubyansky in Moscow, 1869; courses of Professor V. I. Guerrier in

Moscow, 1872; Bestuzhevsky (named after their director, historian,

professor K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin) in St. Petersburg, 1878, etc.).

Understanding the shortcomings of the existing education system, representatives

advanced public contributed to the formation of extracurricular activities in Russia

education: since 1859, free Sunday schools began to work,

the program of which was wider than in state schools, and included acquaintance with

fundamentals of physics, chemistry, natural history, etc. The government is also

in a number of cases acted as the initiator of out-of-school education. So, starting from

1871, public readings of great interest were held, in

which was dominated by historical, military and religious and moral

subject.

In the 1970s and 1990s, the number of periodicals almost tripled per

Russian language (up to 1 thousand items in 1900). Finally

a type of "thick" magazine took shape, publishing literary and

artistic, journalistic, critical, scientific materials and having

significant impact on social and cultural life ("Sovremennik",

« Russian word”, “Bulletin of Europe”). Book publishing grew even more rapidly (in

1860s-90s from 1800 to 11500 titles per year). All this was possible

how the printing base in Russia has grown over the three post-reform decades

more than three times (in 1864 there were about 300 printing houses, in

In 1894 there were already more than a thousand). Among the publishers, the leading place was occupied by

private firms of M. O. Wolf, F. F. Pavlenkov, I. D. Sytin, which produced

educational, popular science, fiction, including cheap

publications of Russian classics. The number of bookstores increased 6 times (up to

3 thousand at the end of the 90s). The number of libraries grew in towns and villages and

readers opened by public institutions and local authorities

management. In 1862 the first public library was opened in Moscow

(now the Russian State Library). Main role in development

cultural and educational institutions belonged to the intelligentsia, including

the number of the land.

Late 19th century

Education and enlightenment

The education system in Russia at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries still included

three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools),

secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher

school (universities, institutes). According to 1913 data, literate among

subjects of the Russian Empire (except for children under 8 years old)

averaged 38-39%.

To a large extent, the development of public education was associated with

activities of the democratic community. The policy of the authorities in this

area does not appear to be consistent. So, in 1905 the Ministry

public education adopted a draft law "On the introduction of universal

elementary education in the Russian Empire" for consideration II

State Duma However, this project never received the force of law.

The growing need for specialists has contributed to the development of higher,

especially technical education. Number of students many

universities has grown significantly - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.5

thousand in 1907. Private higher education became widespread

institutions (Free higher school of P. F. Lesgaft, Psychoneurological

Institute of V. M. Bekhterev, etc.). Shanyavsky University, which worked in 1908-

18 years at the expense of the liberal figure of public education A.L.

Shanyavsky (1837-1905) and who gave higher and secondary education, played an important

role in the democratization of higher education. Persons admitted to the university

of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political

views.

At the same time with Sunday schools new types began to operate

cultural and educational institutions for adults - working courses

(for example, Prechistensky in Moscow, among whose teachers were such

outstanding scientists such as I. M. Sechenov, V. I. Picheta, etc.), educational

workers' societies and folk houses- original clubs with a library,

assembly hall, tea and trading shop (Ligovsky People's House of Countess S.

V. Panina in St. Petersburg).

The development of the periodical press had a great influence on education.

and book publishing. The circulation of mass literary, artistic and scientific

popular "thin" magazine "Niva" (1894-1916) by 1900 increased from 9 to

235 thousand copies. In terms of the number of published books, Russia ranked third

place in the world (after Germany and Japan).

The largest book publishers A. S. Suvorin (1835-1912) in St. Petersburg and I.

D. Sytin (1851-1934) in Moscow contributed to the familiarization of the people with

literature, releasing books at affordable prices (“Cheap Library”

Suvorin, "Library for self-education" by Sytin). In 1899 - 1913 in

Petersburg, the book publishing partnership "Knowledge" worked.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

« Architectural ensemble Smolny" N. Semennikov Leningrad. "Art"

"Story national culture» T. Balakina Moscow. "Spectrum-5" 1994

"I know the world" N. Chudakova Moscow. "AST" 1996

"Russian language" R. Pankov / L. Grishkovskaya Kaunas. "Shviesa" 2002

MAIN TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION AND

In the development of enlightenment and education in the 19th century, three main trends can be distinguished. First– attention to the problems of universal primary education . Second- the formation of engineering and technical intelligentsia, the opening of the first engineering universities in Europe. Third- the struggle of women for vocational education. Let us consider how these problems were solved in Europe and Russia.

Sometime in the early Middle Ages, Charlemagne dreamed of an elementary education for his subjects so that they could read the Bible. The next burst of educational enthusiasm was associated with the Renaissance and the Reformation. However, in European countries, until the 19th century, the issue of legislative registration of the right to receive compulsory primary education was never discussed.

The rapid development of capitalist production in England led entrepreneurs to the conclusion that it was necessary to broaden their horizons and educate workers. It was cheaper to engage in mass training of workers than to renovate a broken fleet of machines and mechanisms or pay benefits for industrial injuries. It was in England that from the 30s of the 19th century they gradually began to involve all children employed in production in compulsory education. For example, all working children under 14 were obliged to attend factory schools organized by the owners for 2 hours a day. England was the first country in Europe to pass a law on compulsory primary education in 1870. However, from 1870 to 1880, primary schools in England were run by local authorities, who did not always bear the costs of organizing education. It was not until 1880 that primary education was made absolutely compulsory for all Englishmen between the ages of 5 and 13, regardless of the wishes of the local authorities. Since 1892, primary education in England has been free.

In France, attention was drawn to the problems of public education during the great revolution. The "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" of 1789 proclaimed the organization of public education for all citizens.

The 19th century in France began to be called the century of the public school. In 1883, a law was passed requiring every community to maintain at least one elementary school.

In Germany, Holland, Switzerland, Protestantism was undoubtedly an effective factor in the development of public education.

In the German lands, Prussia was a role model in solving the problem of public education, where, already in 1794, in accordance with the Zemstvo law, the principle of compulsory school attendance was proclaimed. The defeat of Prussia in the fight against Napoleon aroused in the people's spirit an interest in education as a factor, including military victories. In 1819, Prussia passed a law on compulsory primary education., according to which parents who did not send their children to school were threatened with punishment. In addressing issues of public education for Germany 19th century characteristically attention to the infrastructure of the school. There is a mass training of the teaching corps. Discussing the military victories of Prussia over Austria (1866) and France (1870), the Europeans were convinced that the basis of these victories was created by the Prussian teacher.

It should be borne in mind that in the 19th century the "educational boom" was accompanied by high interest in pedagogical science. Switzerland becomes a kind of pedagogical center of Europe, where at the end of the 18th century a school was established in the city of Burgsdorf. famous worked there teacher Pestalozzi(1746-1822). His development of educational methods for the poorest sections of society attracted the attention of all Europeans.

A characteristic feature of the development of schooling in Europe in the 19th century was the general tendency to withdraw religious education from the walls of the school. Schools declared their religious neutrality. It seems to us that this phenomenon once again vividly demonstrates the bourgeois development of Europe in the 19th century. Migration work force makes the working class multi-religious. Traditional religious education and the tasks of obtaining a general education, dictated by international production, come into conflict. It was in the 19th century that the separation of religious and secular education gradually took place. This does not mean a denial, let alone a ban, of religious enlightenment. It continues to exist, but only outside schools, and, most importantly, at the free choice of students and their parents. The first examples of secular schools are being created in England, Holland, France and the USA.

The pan-European trend of attention to the problem of public education was also manifested in Russian history 19th century. Already in the first half of the century it was impossible not to notice the new bourgeois relations that were taking shape in the bowels of the traditional national economy. The developing commodity exchange between individual regions of the country required the improvement of means of communication, transport, waterways, and at the same time new requirements were imposed on workers. Meanwhile, the state of literacy of the people caused serious concern. At the beginning of the 19th century, only 2.7% of the literate population was in the Russian outback, and just over 9% in the cities. Note that Russia was still an agricultural country, and the number of urban population did not exceed 4%. The cultural backwardness of Russia slowed down economic development countries. Life dictated the need for comprehensive measures to develop public education. To organize such activities in August 1802, for the first time in the history of Russia, the Ministry of Public Education was created. In 1804, Alexander 1 approved the “Preliminary Rules for Public Education” presented by the Ministry, on the basis of which the “Charter of Educational Institutions” was promulgated. According to the Charter of 1804, the actual public education was to be carried out parochial schools, which were the first stage of the general education system. One-year parish schools were created at churches, both in towns and villages. In state-owned villages and cities, the priest was in charge of them, and in the landowners' estates, the owner of the estate himself. Funds for the development of parish schools had to be allocated by the population itself. As you can see, in the very organization of the case there were obstacles to its development. It was not enough to announce the opening of an educational institution (the ministry received such reports, for example, only in 1810 from the Novgorod diocese 110), it was necessary to find money, premises, show the will to achieve the goal, etc., but this is how once it wasn't. The results of the work on public education in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century were not encouraging. In 1825, there were 1,095 elementary schools in 686 county towns in which more than 4 million people lived, while there were 12,179 taverns and drinking houses in the same place.

The Charter of 1804 calls district schools the second stage of public education in Russia.. They were created in county and provincial cities and were intended for children of the third estate - artisans, merchants, and philistines. The schools received annual maintenance from the government.

Thus, the schools of the first and second stages provided primary school education.

For the first time, the legislative consolidation of the right to compulsory primary education for free citizens of Russia was discussed during the preparation of the draft school reform of Alexander P in 1864. However, the half-heartedness of the reforms of Alexander II did not allow these plans to be implemented. The Russian elementary school was gradually transformed throughout the 19th century. It was withdrawn from the spiritual department and subordinated to the secular school councils, which included as representatives state power, estates, and leaders of zemstvos. The term of education in elementary school was defined as three years, and further education in secondary educational institutions (gymnasiums) involved passing an exam according to the elementary school program. Despite the secular nature of the subordination of primary schools, Orthodox education in them, the study of the Law of God remained the core moral education students.

The very beginning of the 19th century was characterized by liberal undertakings in the field of education. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created - a special government agency, which has become not so much a body contributing to the development of public education, "how much a supervisory body." Under the ministry, the Main Directorate of Schools was created, which included Yankovich F.I.

In 1804, the “Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire” and the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities” were published. In accordance with them introduced new system public education and management of educational institutions.

The system was based on three principles:

free,

Bessoslovnost (except for serfs),

Continuity of educational institutions.

The system of public education, subordinate to the ministry, included:

1) Parish schools - 1 year of study;

2) County schools - 2 years:

3) Gymnasiums in the provinces - 4 years;

4) Universities - 5-7 years.

At the same time, children of serfs and girls were not allowed to enter the gymnasium and universities.

Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, each headed by a university. They were led by school district trustees.

The duties of the trustee are the opening of the university or the transformation on new foundations of the existing management of the educational institutions of the district through the rector of the university.

The rector of the university was elected by the professors at the general meeting and reported to the trustee. The rector headed the university and, in addition, managed the educational institutions of his district.

Directors of gymnasiums (in each provincial city), in addition to their direct management, managed all the schools in a given province. They were subordinate to the superintendent of district schools, who led all the parish schools.

Thus, the head of the higher school was the administrator of the lower schools. As a result, an educational administration was created from specialists who knew the matter.

The following universities were opened in Russia: Moscow, Vilna (Vilnius), Derpt (Tartu), Kharkov and Kazan were opened in 1804, in 1816 - the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. University), in 1834 - Kyiv University. All universities in Russia existed mainly as secular educational institutions. Orthodox Church had its own theological academies: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and Kazan.

The gymnasium provided a completed secondary education and prepared for admission to the university. The content of the training was encyclopedic: it was supposed to study foreign new and Latin languages, mathematics, geography and history of general and Russian, natural history, philosophy, political economy, fine arts, technology and commerce. At the same time, they did not teach their native language, domestic literature and the Law of God in the gymnasium.

District schools prepared students for continuing education in gymnasiums, as well as for practical activities. There were many subjects in the curriculum - from the Law of God to drawing (Sacred history, reading a book about the positions of a person and a citizen, geography, history, etc.). The heavy workload of the curriculum led to a heavy workload of teachers and students: 6-7 hours of classes at school every day. Teachers were required to use only textbooks recommended by the ministry.

Parish schools could be opened in provincial, county towns and in the village at each church parish. They also had two goals: to prepare for education in the district school and to give children general education knowledge (boys and girls could study together). Subjects of study: the Law of God and moral teachings, reading, writing, the first steps of arithmetic.

Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. In the "classic" students were prepared for admission to universities and other educational institutions, most of the time was devoted to the study of ancient languages, Russian literature, new foreign languages and history. In the "real" ones, they prepared for military and civil service, instead of ancient languages, the teaching of practical mathematics was strengthened, jurisprudence was introduced.

The network of private educational institutions also expanded, but the government deliberately restrained their growth. In 1883, it was forbidden to open them in Moscow and St. Petersburg, although later they were allowed again. Private schools were also under strict government control.

The beginning of the second half of the 19th century in Russia was characterized by a great reform movement that stirred up society. Following the reform of 1861 on the liberation of peasants from serfdom, other reforms were outlined: judicial, zemstvo, educational, educational. By this time, the issues of upbringing and education began to be understood as "the most important issues of life."

During these years, many outstanding people turned to pedagogical theory and activity: Pirogov N.I. (famous surgeon, public figure, teacher), Ushinsky K.D., Tolstoy L.N. and others. For them, this was the time of the most intensive innovative work. Many interesting figures joined the problems of pedagogy and pedagogical work in various provinces of Russia. With a light hand N.I. Pirogov, a lively discussion began in the press of the problem of human education and other pedagogical issues: “What should a school be like? What should be its program? Class or non-class school? What to teach at school? How to prepare a teacher?”, and many others.

The main attention of society at that time was drawn to the public school, which, one might say, did not exist in the empire. The parish schools were obliged to support the peasants and landowners themselves, so they developed very poorly. The villagers were still taught to read and write by deacons, pilgrims and similar people.

Public schools were subordinated to different departments:

the Ministry of State Property;

the Ministry of the Court;

the Ministry of the Interior;

Holy Synod (more than half of all schools);

Ministry of Public Education (it accounted for about 20% of schools).

The abolition of serfdom necessitated the opening of schools for all segments of the population: peasants and landowners, urban residents. The injustice of the class policy in the field of education, restrictions in the field of women's education became obvious. The insufficiency of secondary education based on classicism was revealed. The need for the development of domestic pedagogical science, there was a need for pedagogical periodicals, new educational books, and the development of new teaching methods. Teacher training for different type schools, the creation of schools themselves - all these were pressing problems of the middle of the 19th century.

In 1864, the "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" was developed. According to him, public schools could be opened by various government departments, societies, individuals, who themselves decided whether they were paid or free. The purpose of public schools is "to establish religious and moral concepts among the people and to disseminate initial useful knowledge." Teaching subjects: the Law of God, reading (civil and church books), writing, four steps of arithmetic, church singing. Public schools were run by county and provincial school councils.

In 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums" was introduced. Two types of gymnasiums were established: classical and real. The goal of "classic" is to give general education required for admission to the university and other higher specialized educational institutions. "Real gymnasiums" did not give the right to enter universities. There were also "pro-gymnasiums" - the initial stage of the gymnasium. Pedagogical councils received great rights: they could approve teaching programs and choose textbooks.

In 1860, the "Regulations on Women's Schools of the Department of the Ministry of Public Education" was published. Two types of classless women's schools were established:

I category - 6 years of study;

II category - 3 years of study.

Their goal is to “inform the students of the religious, moral and mental education that should be required from every woman, especially from the future wife and mother of the family.” Individuals and societies could open them. The curriculum of women's schools of the first category included: the Law of God, the Russian language, grammar and literature, arithmetic and the concepts of measurements, general and Russian geography, history, the beginnings of natural knowledge and physics, calligraphy and needlework.

In 1863, the "University Charter" was introduced, providing some autonomy to the universities - the University Council was created, which supervised all educational work, and on which the rector was chosen. Severe restrictions on the activities of universities, established under Nicholas I, were partially removed, but the university remained subordinate to the trustee of the educational district and the Ministry of Public Education. Women were not allowed in the university. The universities had 4 faculties: historical and philological, physical and mathematical (with a natural department), law and medicine. Many new departments have been opened.

"Zemstvos", created in the 60s, received the right to open educational institutions; they also had to deal with their material support. Zemstvos developed plans for universal education, opened schools, held courses and congresses for teachers, developed new programs and textbooks, created teachers' seminaries (before 1917, about 1/3 of primary rural schools were zemstvo). Manners of a cultured person on the site pages.

Education in the 19th century had a stepped form. First, the student had to graduate from an elementary general educational institution, then a secondary general education and the last stage - admission to the university.

Primary educational institutions consisted of parish, county and city schools, Sunday schools and literacy schools. At the same time, the student should first study at the parish, and then at the district school, and only then he had the right to enter the gymnasium.

Gymnasiums and boarding schools were secondary educational institutions. There were classical, real, military gymnasiums. Gymnasiums in importance were a modern high school, which must be completed before entering a university. Education in these institutions took seven years.

Representatives of all classes had the right to enter an educational institution. However, children of the lower classes studied in schools and colleges, and children of high-ranking people studied in boarding schools and lyceums. This form of education was founded by Alexander I, later changed by Nicholas I, and again restored by Alexander II.

Subjects of study

The curriculum has changed frequently throughout the century. This applies to both high schools and colleges.

Parish and district schools officially had a curriculum as extensive as in gymnasiums. But in fact, it did not work out to carry out the established plan. Primary educational institutions were placed under the care of local officials, who, in turn, did not seek to take care of children. There were not enough classrooms and teachers.

The parish schools taught reading, writing, simple rules arithmetic and the foundations of the law of God. In district institutions, a broader course was studied: the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history, geometry, calligraphy and the law of God.

Gymnasiums taught such subjects as mathematics, geometry, physics, statistics, geography, botany, zoology, history, philosophy, literature, aesthetics, music, dance. In addition to the Russian language, the students studied German, French, Latin, and Greek. Some subjects were optional.

At the end of the 19th century, the emphasis in education began to be made on applied disciplines. There was a demand for technical education.

Learning process

In the 19th century, in gymnasiums and colleges, the time of study was divided into lessons and breaks. Students arrived at class by 9 o'clock or earlier. Lessons ended at 4 p.m., on some days at 12 p.m. Usually, the earliest education was completed on Saturday, but in some gymnasiums such days were Wednesday. After the lessons, underachieving students stayed for extra classes to improve their grades. There was also the opportunity to stay on elective courses.

It was more difficult for those students who lived in boarding schools. Their day was scheduled to the minute. The daily routine in different pensions varied slightly. It looked like this: getting up at 6 in the morning, after washing and dressing, the students repeated the lessons, then they went to have breakfast and then the lessons began. At 12 o'clock there was lunch, after which the lessons began again. Classes ended at 18:00. The students rested a little, had a snack, did their homework. Before going to bed, they ate and washed.

In addition to ordinary general education state schools, various specialized educational institutions are widespread in our state: for example, art and music schools. The Church, which pays special attention to the worthy upbringing of the rising generation, organizes its own pedagogical classes.

In modern times, Sunday schools have been organized in many Orthodox parishes, in which children with younger age(usually from the age of five) to high school (in some parishes, such schools include only three or four years of education). This practice is a modern echo of the history of our Fatherland - the time when it was at the temples that educational institutions were created (the so-called parochial schools). The teachers in today's Sunday schools are representatives of the clergy, as well as pious lay people who have the appropriate knowledge and pedagogical skills to work with children.

In modern Sunday schools, the Law of God is studied - a presentation of the Old and New Testaments, understandable for children's perception. The meaning of the ten commandments is explained, basic moral values are instilled. Children are taught respect for parents and elders, kindness, love for and native Fatherland.

The lives of the saints are also taught in Sunday schools. Children are told about the great ascetics of piety, their exploits. In such lessons, children can learn a lot of new things from history, not only Russian state, but also great empires (Roman and Byzantine).

In Sunday school classes, children are introduced to Christian culture and art. The meaning of icons is explained to children, they are told about the most revered images. Children are introduced to singing and music, they learn poems and songs with them for performances at festive Easter and Christmas concerts.

Special importance in the Sunday school is given to spirituality and worthy upbringing of the child. Children are introduced to basic Christian prayers, explain the meaning and significance of the posts.

In addition to the educational process, Sunday schools can organize an entertainment program. Thus, in many Orthodox parishes, it is common practice for children, their parents and teachers to visit all kinds of museums, exhibitions, and circus performances. Scout trips are sometimes organized beautiful places our Motherland, as well as pilgrimage trips.

Classes in Sunday schools are held in a separate building on the territory of the church or in the church itself (its lower part). The name of these educational institutions indicates that the lessons are held on Sundays. They usually begin the day after the end of the liturgy.

Sunday schools instill in children a general culture of behavior, the development of fundamental moral qualities and provide knowledge of the fundamentals of the Orthodox faith.

home education

If we determine the effectiveness of the educational system by the number of bright pupils, then it is the system of home education and upbringing that has proven itself best in Russia. Each family created its own educational structure as a result of creative communication between parents, teachers and the child. However, this arbitrary design had a rigid frame.

Governess - home tutor - tutor

Here is the triad that made up the system of home education and upbringing.

A foreign governess was usually invited to a child of 5-6 (sometimes 3-4) years old and settled next to the nursery. In order to instill good manners in the child, the governess ate with the child, walked, played with him. And I studied with him - in a foreign language. For the time being, they studied their native language without programs and teachers. By the age of 10-12, the child was able to read books from the home library in two or three languages.

And then it was time to invite a home mentor. This is where the real pedagogical creativity of parents began. The governess was introduced letters of recommendation, previous work experience, and knowledge of a foreign language was confirmed by foreign origin. And where did you prepare for home mentors? Nowhere! Just like today. Who were invited to be mentors? Yes, anyone, to the best of the insight and ingenuity of the parents.

If with a governess a child mastered the house, then with a home mentor he mastered the world. The home tutor was a friend, confidante, patron, travel companion, play partner, role model, positive example for the child. That is, everyone. He could be an eccentric, but he could not help but be a person, and the lack of a teacher's diploma did not bother anyone.

In Russian literature of the 19th century, home tutors were portrayed much more often than, say, gymnasium teachers. Memoirs testify that in the last century, almost every person from a wealthy family had at least one good mentor who left behind a kind and grateful memory. So, A. S. Griboyedov, who did not forget to mention home teachers with a well-aimed word in his comedy, was brought up by the scientist-encyclopedist I. B. Petrosilius, who served in the university library.

A talented home tutor was I. A. Krylov, who for some time lived in the family of Prince Golitsyn. As F. F. Vigel recalled, “despite his laziness, out of boredom he suggested to Prince Golitsyn that he teach Russian to his younger sons and, consequently, to those who study with them. And in this business he proved himself a master. The lessons were passed almost all in conversations; he knew how to arouse curiosity, loved questions, and answered them as intelligently, as clearly as he wrote his fables. He was not satisfied with the Russian language alone, and mixed with his instructions a lot of moral teachings and explanations of various subjects from other sciences.

Of the Russian home tutors, V. A. Zhukovsky, who raised Emperor Alexander II, gained the greatest fame. Before taking office, Zhukovsky presented to Nicholas I the “Plan of Teaching”, in which he outlined the principles of the special system of upbringing and education he had created for the future monarch, as well as his pedagogical and political views. And being accepted into the house, he first of all obliged the crowned parent to follow the approved plan.

In addition to a mentor permanently living in the house, parents often invited visiting teachers. “We take tramps both to the house and on tickets,” Famusov lamented. At the end of the lesson, the teacher was given a ticket, which then served as a document for payment. Among the visiting teachers, Russian people prevailed - students who were forced to give lessons to pay for their education, seminarians. They often came from educated families and were more knowledgeable than many of their foreign counterparts. But famous people did not hesitate to be among those who give paid lessons. So, the famous Dobuzhinsky gave drawing lessons to little Volodya Nabokov, and his mother, when she was a girl, was taught zoology by the famous scientist Shimkevich.

At the same time, the child could attend the gymnasium at the same time, but this does not mean at all that the parents abandoned the home tutor and tutors. The case was for everyone.

Principles of home education

All successful examples of home education make it possible to single out its main principle - trust in the teacher, to whom parents partially gave their educational rights, up to the right to “execute and pardon”.

Having trusted the home teacher, the parents avoided openly interfering in the educational process and strengthened his authority in the eyes of their child with an emphatically respectful attitude towards the teacher. At the same time, in the eyes of the child, the authority of parents who were not involved in the prosaic educational routine and acted as the highest court also increased. Insincerity in relations between the family and the home "school" in this case was completely excluded - otherwise the tutor or mentor would not have been able to get along in the house. Usually he was treated as a member of the family and a participant in all its joys and worries. Knowledge of the family structure, the situation in the house, the character of the pupil helped the "school" to find and make the right pedagogical decisions.

In the middle of the XIX century, special methods of home education appeared, which took into account the accumulated experience. They provided for "educational conversations" and "educational walks", during which it was possible to explain quite complex things in a relaxed manner - moral and philosophical ideas, logical categories, classifications of biological processes, and much more. Conversations were recommended to be held regularly during the hours of classes specially allotted for this. They were supposed to serve to summarize what was learned and seen on walks, as well as to think aloud and develop speech. The experience of transferring knowledge through easy communication was also reflected in children's literature - in the genre of edifying conversation (teacher with student, father with son, etc.). “Conversations of a prudent mentor with well-bred pupils”, “Letters from a mother to her son about righteous honor and to her daughter about virtues decent for the female sex” entered the circle of the few publications for youth in Russian at that time.

Teaching "jokingly" did not at all exclude systematic lessons ("classes") and independent preparation for them. Usually, two or three more children living in the neighborhood were taken to the company for the pupil to take the course. In this small team, communication skills with peers were developed, the spirit of competition had a good effect on the quality of education. Regular classes were supplemented by communication with a mentor while doing household chores or on walks, which were mandatory at any time of the year and in any weather.

The perfect portrait of a governess

A. P. Kern draws the ideal image of a governess in his memoirs: “At that very time, two governesses were discharged from England, m-lle Benoit arrived in Bernovo at the end of 1808. My parents immediately placed us at her complete disposal. No one dared interfere in her business, make any remarks, disturb the peace of her studies with us and disturb her in the peaceful orphanage where we studied. We were placed in a room adjacent to her bedroom.

Mlle Benoit was a very serious, reserved girl of 47 years old, with a very pleasant, intelligent and kind appearance. She was always dressed in white and loved this color so much that she was delighted with white hare fur and made a cloak on it from expensive silk fabric. Her legs were cold, and she always kept them on a bag of hot prunes. She dressed herself and cleaned the room herself. When everything was ready in it, she opened the doors and invited us to breakfast. We were served coffee, tea, eggs, bread and butter, and honey. At dinner she always drank a glass of white wine after soup and the same after dinner, and she liked very dark bread. After breakfast, we walked around the garden, no matter what the weather, then sat down for lessons. We taught all the subjects, of course, we studied French and Russian only for six weeks during the holidays, for which the student Marchinsky traveled from Moscow. Mademoiselle Benoit was so able to make us want to learn by variety of occupations, patient and clear interpretation, without even raising her voice, meek and even manner, and impeccable justice, that we were engaged, without any burden, all day long, except for the time of walks and dinner hours, breakfast and dinner. We loved our lessons and activities (like knitting and sewing) near m-lle Benoit, because we loved and respected her and were in awe of her power over us, which excluded any other will. No one dared to say a word to us! She also took care of our toilet, grew our hair, tied our heads with brown velvet, similar to our eyes. She took a lively part in everything that concerned us and our families ... At dusk, she made us lie down on the floor to straighten our backs, or ordered us to walk around the room and bow as we went, sliding, or lay down on the bed and taught us, standing by the bed, sing French romances. She talked about her students in London, about William Tell and Switzerland.”

Ideal home mentor Vasily Zhukovsky

“Teaching according to the proposed plan can only then be perfect when nothing, in any case, will violate the order once and for all established; when both persons, and time, and everything surrounding the Grand Duke will be subject without any restriction to those people to whom His Highness will be entrusted. Sovereign Emperor, having approved this plan, may he deign to be its first executor.

The door of the training room during the lecture must be inviolable; no one should allow himself to enter it at the time that the Grand Duke will devote to his occupation; there should be no exception to this rule. The Grand Duke will learn to value his time when he sees that others also value it and that the strictest accuracy is observed in the order of hours. His highness, in the course of his upbringing, should not esteem anything beyond his duties. He must move forward with a constant and even step: inviolable order is the main condition for this ... The expression of the approval of the Sovereign Emperor should be the greatest reward for our pupil, and the expression of disapproval of His Majesty - the most severe punishment. It is necessary to cherish this important means very much. I dare to think that the Sovereign Emperor should never praise the Grand Duke for diligence, but simply show his pleasure with affectionate treatment ... The Grand Duke should get used to seeing in the performance of his duties a simple necessity that does not deserve any special approval; such habit forms firmness of character. Every single good deed is very unimportant; only continuous constancy in goodness deserves attention and praise. His highness must learn to act without reward: the thought of his father must be his secret conscience ... The same can be said about the expression of parental disapproval. His highness must tremble at the thought of his father's reproach. The sovereign will always know about his petty misdeeds, but let it be a secret between his majesty and mentors; let the pupil feel his guilt and punish himself with his painful feeling. But to experience the obvious anger of his father should be the only case in his life ... "

From the “Plan of Teaching” by Vasily Zhukovsky, 1826.

Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens

The Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens is the first privileged women's secondary educational institution of a closed type in Russia for the daughters of nobles. Founded in 1764 at the Resurrection Smolny convent in St. Petersburg. Education lasted from 6 to 16 years. Closed after 1917.

On July 22, 1835, the cathedral was "named the cathedral of all educational institutions." This name was explained by the fact that long before his graduation, he was in the center of a large educational complex: in 1764, the newly founded Educational Society for Noble Maidens was located in the southern building of the monastery, and a year later, a “school for young girls of non-noble origin” was opened in the northern building. (Smolny Institute and Meshchanskoe School). Later, Catherine ordered the establishment of a community of nuns in Smolny, selecting twenty “old women of an honest and good life” from other monasteries, which could be used to serve the “noble” pupils. It was not easy to find such "old women". From the Moscow and Smolensk monasteries, fourteen nuns were recruited with difficulty, distinguished by the dignity that "they know how to read and write." However, they soon disappeared from the monastery. The educational institutions founded in it existed until the Great October Revolution. The architectural monuments erected in the neighborhood of the monastery marked the beginning of women's education in Russia and thus played an important role in the history of Russian education. Before their discovery, there were very few literate Russian women even among the nobility, and even if one was found in another class, it was a "very strange phenomenon."

The emergence of the Educational Society was influenced by the influence of French writers of the Enlightenment. Catherine, approving the charter of the educational society, introduced a clause into it depriving parents of the right to demand the child back before the end of the full twelve-year course of study. Only "girls of the natural (hereditary) nobility and daughters of officials with military service ranks not lower than colonels, and in civilian service not lower than a state adviser" were admitted to the institute. Grown in artificial, greenhouse conditions to "decorate the family and society", "Smolyanka" also replenished the court staff - from them the Empress chose her state ladies and ladies-in-waiting.

The daughters of grooms, soldiers, deacons, lackeys and other "vile people" were taken to the Meshchansky School. These girls were prepared "for use in all women's work and needlework, that is, sewing, weaving, knitting, cooking, washing, cleaning ...". However, the graduates of the school also had their “highest granted” privileges, analogous to the advantages enjoyed by the students of the Academy of Arts: if any of them married a serf, her husband received freedom, and children born from their marriage were considered free.

Throughout their existence, both educational institutions were under the auspices of the "highest persons", who personally looked through the lists of those accepted with all the data about them and their parents. On one occasion, “the daughter of a father known for his bad behavior” was deleted from the list, and on another occasion, the daughter of an exile. In 1808, the daughter of a “chamber footman from the black sheep” was presented for admission to the school, about which the list said: “Healthy, turning off the real color of the white black.” The resolution of the empress read: "Do not take her."

Of course, the living conditions and training of pupils at the school were much worse than at the institute, although the level of teaching in Smolny was by no means always high. In addition to general education subjects, schoolgirls were taught music, dance, drawing, as well as the presentation of theatrical plays. Performances in Smolny were prepared by the best dance masters, bandmasters and artists of court theaters. Much worse was the case with the teaching of the sciences. The commission of public schools noted that the pupils had “very insufficient knowledge of foreign languages and especially their own Russian”, and since all subjects were taught in French, “which the girls do not quite understand”, they received very poor knowledge. Later they began to teach in their native language and the situation improved somewhat. But the real turning point came only in the middle of the nineteenth century, when Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky, a remarkable democrat teacher, was appointed inspector of classes at both institutions.

Having carried out a radical reform of education and training, Ushinsky attracted young, democratic-minded teachers to teach at the institute and school, and for the first time, the curricula in both institutions were equalized. The leading place in them was occupied by the native language and literature. Ushinsky managed to achieve almost complete eradication of the traditional scornful attitude of "noble Smolensk women" towards "philistine women". Such a democratization of Smolny, naturally, caused discontent in the "higher circles". The head of the institute and conservative teachers launched a campaign against Ushinsky, which ended with a denunciation accusing him of political unreliability. Outraged by the very fact of the denunciation, Ushinsky left Smolny. However, his stay there did not go unnoticed. “Thanks to the energy and talent of one person,” the historian notes, “in just three years, a huge educational institution, hitherto closed, routine, was completely renewed and began to live a new, full life.” Some of its graduates now entered the Women's Higher and Pedagogical Courses, at the Women's Medical Institute.

The Smolny Institute was called upon, first of all, to inspire their pupils with "unshakable devotion to the throne and reverent gratitude to their august patrons." But one should not, perhaps, forget that, along with the ladies-in-waiting of the empresses and favorites of the emperors, his pupils were Radishchev’s wife, who went to exile with her husband and died there, the wives and sisters of the Decembrists, the mother of the hero Plevna, General Skobelev, herself in the Russian-Turkish who served in the hospital during the war and was killed in Bulgaria, as well as the mothers and wives of other glorious sons of Russia.

The building of the Meshchansky School is still used for educational purposes - students of the Faculty of Geography and the Faculty of Applied Mathematics of Leningrad University are studying in it.

The educational society of noble maidens was in the monastery buildings much longer than the school. Only at the beginning of the next century, the architect Quarenghi erected a new building for him on the south side of the monastery, on the site where there was a “master yard” with a ministerial infirmary, a bakery, sheds and other things.

Young ladies were taught not only languages and manners, but also patience. Here is how the former “Smolyanka” Anna Vladimirovna Suslova recalled her years of study:

In Smolny there was discipline, like in the army. Physically it was very hard. My first impression of Smolny is cold. It's cold everywhere: in bedrooms, classrooms, in dining rooms. The temperature is not higher than plus 16 degrees. In the morning it was necessary to wash with ice water up to the waist. This was observed by a cool lady (a teacher attached to a class). Then everyone dressed and walked along the corridor to the church, which was located at the opposite end of the building. During prayer, one should stand still, looking ahead. You can not turn your head, step from foot to foot. The festive service went on for a long time, and the girls sometimes fainted.

Posture was very well taken care of. The girls dressed in dresses with a whalebone inserted so that the waist was tightened straight. God forbid you get hunched over. A cool lady was always with us and watched the posture, the hairstyle. It was necessary to be completely "licked" so that not a single hair hung. There should be one pigtail, two were not allowed. A black ribbon was woven into it. Any coquetry, desire to stand out was pursued very strictly. They always walked in pairs, silently. You can't smile. For a smile, they immediately reduced several points for behavior.

The education was generally good. We learned languages largely due to the fact that we were not allowed to speak Russian. Only in German or French. Everywhere: in bedrooms, while relaxing, etc. taught us to cook, sew, embroider, dance, play a musical instrument. You could choose one of three: violin, piano or harp.

I didn't like the Smolny. I was cold, coughing and spent half the time in the infirmary. It was difficult for me to maintain this regime. But I have developed a lot of patience. It helped me a lot in my life.

Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum

On October 19, 1811, in Tsarskoye Selo near St. Petersburg, thirty boys sat down at their desks. They could consider themselves both schoolchildren and students: they were on average 12 years old, but after graduating from their educational institution they could not study anywhere else. It was the first year of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum - a new educational institution for Russia, and remained the only one of its kind.

In this educational institution, according to the plan of Mikhail Speransky, the closest adviser to Tsar Alexander I, a small number of noble children were to study in order to later participate in the management of Russia.

There were only thirty boys. Among them were representatives of noble families, such as Prince Alexander Gorchakov; there were children of tsarist officials, like Ivan Pushchin, among them was the great-grandson of the famous "Arap of Peter the Great" - Abram Petrovich Hannibal - Alexander Pushkin.

Lyceum students were waiting for 6 years of study. A strict regime of the day, in which "classes" and walks, "dancing" and fencing alternated. It was impossible to go home - all the lyceum students lived in the Lyceum in small rooms, into which the large hall was divided by wooden partitions that did not reach the ceiling.

We studied many subjects: foreign languages, history, geography, mathematics, law (legal sciences), artillery and fortification (the science of military installations), physics. In the senior years, classes were conducted without a strict program - the approved charter determined only the sciences to be studied: knowledge was provided in the sections of moral, physical, mathematical, historical sciences, literature and languages. They studied seriously, but did not miss the opportunity to joke. Once at a lesson, the lyceum student Myasoedov described the sunrise in verse in this way: “The ruddy king of nature flashed in the west (!) ...” Another lyceum student (Pushkin or Illichevsky, it is not known exactly) immediately continued:

"And the astonished nations

Don't know what to start

Go to bed or get up."

Teachers were respected and loved. They understood their pupils well. Ivan Pushchin's memoirs about the mathematics teacher Kartsov, who called Pushkin to the blackboard and assigned a problem, have been preserved. Pushkin shifted from foot to foot for a long time and silently wrote some formulas. Kartsov finally asked him: “What happened? What does X equal? Pushkin, smiling, replied: “Zero!” - "Good! You, Pushkin, in my class everything ends in zero. Sit down and write poetry."

Six years of study have flown by. Fifteen final exams passed in 17 days. The lyceum was completed on May 31, 1817. Lyceum friendship, the memory of the "city of the Lyceum" they will keep for life. Every year on October 19 they will celebrate the lyceum anniversary, remembering those who are no longer there ... The first to leave is Nikolai Rzhevsky (in 1817, shortly after graduation), the last - Alexander Gorchakov (in 1883).

Gorchakov will become chancellor (highest official), Küchelbecker - a Decembrist, Pushkin - "the sun of Russian poetry."

Wherever fate takes us

And happiness wherever it leads

We are all the same: the whole world is a foreign land for us;

Fatherland to us Tsarskoye Selo.

The lyceum was an educational institution that repeated in miniature the fate and nature of many reforms and undertakings of the “Alexandrian days of a wonderful beginning”: brilliant promises, broad ideas, with a complete lack of thought of common tasks, goals and plans. A lot of attention was paid to the placement and external order of the new educational institution, the issues of the form of lyceum students were discussed by the emperor himself. However, the teaching plan was ill-conceived, the composition of the professors was random, most of them did not even meet the requirements of a good gymnasium in terms of their training and pedagogical experience. And the Lyceum gave graduates the rights of those who graduated from a higher educational institution. The future of lyceum students was not clearly defined either. According to the original plan, the younger brothers of Alexander I, Nikolai and Mikhail, were also to be brought up in the Lyceum. This idea probably belonged to Speransky, who, like many progressive people of those years, was alarmed by how the characters of the great princes were developing, on which the fate of millions of people could depend in the future. Growing up, Nikolai and Mikhail Pavlovich got used to the belief in the indifference and the divine origin of their power and with a deep conviction that the art of management consists in "sergeant major science" ...

These plans, apparently, caused opposition from the Empress Maria Feodorovna. The general offensive of the reaction before the war of 1812, which was expressed, in particular, in the fall of Speransky, led to the fact that the original plans were discarded, as a result of which Nicholas I came to the throne in 1825 terribly unprepared ... The Lyceum was located in Tsarskoye Selo - the summer imperial residence , in the wing of the Catherine Palace. Already the location itself made it like a court educational institution. However, apparently not without the influence of Speransky, who hated the court circles and sought to limit their political role in the state and influence on the emperor as much as possible, the first director of the Lyceum V. F. Malinovsky tried to protect his educational institution from the influence of the court by strict isolation: The Lyceum was isolated from the surrounding life , pupils were released outside its walls extremely reluctantly and only in special cases, visits to relatives were limited.

There was an indisputable positive side in the lyceum classes: it was that "lyceum spirit" that the lyceum students of the first - "Pushkin" - release remembered for a lifetime and which very soon became the subject of numerous denunciations. It was this “spirit” that Nicholas I was diligently knocking out of the Lyceum later.

When the Lyceum was created, it was assumed that the grand dukes, the younger brothers of Emperor Alexander I, would study there. Therefore, many sought to place their children in this, in modern terms, a prestigious (respected) educational institution. Here is how Natan Yakovlevich Eidelman, a writer, historian, and literary critic, writes about the first lyceum course.

“... Members of the royal family in the end “did not get” to the Lyceum, but meanwhile in the summer of 1811 a competition was formed, because there were much more applicants for thirty places. One (Gorchakov) will be helped by a sonorous title (prince - Rurikovich). Others - important posts held by relatives: Modest Korf's father is a general, a prominent official of justice; ten-year-old Arkady Martynov is still small for the Lyceum, but he is the godson of Speransky himself, and his father is a writer, director of the department of public education; Ivan Malinovsky is fifteen years old, he is already called a “foreign college student”, but his father, Vasily Fedorovich, is appointed director of the Lyceum and wants to “test” the new institution on his own son ...

... More and more - courtier parents, or retired, or low officials; there are no offspring of the richest families like the Stroganovs, Yusupovs, Sheremetevs ... Aristocrats do not send their children to some kind of Lyceum (especially when they found out that the royal brothers are not assigned there): after all, they would have to study in the same class on equal terms and, maybe maybe getting slapped on the back of the head from small estates, low-ranking officials or (it's scary to think!), Let's say, from Vladimir Volkhovsky, the son of a poor hussar from the Poltava province; the boy goes to the Lyceum ... as the first student of the Moscow University boarding school.

From the book of N. Ya. Eidelman

"Our union is beautiful..."

60-90s XIX century

School, education and printing

The fall of serfdom and the liberal education reforms caused major shifts in public education. In the 1860s-90s, the literacy rate of the population increased markedly (on average, 3 times), in the city more than in the countryside (2.5 times). According to the All-Russian census of 1897, the average literacy rate in the Russian Empire was 21.1%, among men - 29.3%, among women - 13.1%. At the same time, slightly more than 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. Thus, the general level of education in Russia until the second half of the XIX century. determined by the elementary school.

In the 1960s, the government carried out reforms in the field of education. "Regulations on primary public schools" 1864. allowed, in particular, the opening of primary schools by public organizations (bodies of city self-government and zemstvos in the countryside). This allowed a broad public movement for the creation of public schools (Moscow and St. Petersburg literacy committees and other public educational organizations) to put into practice the advanced pedagogical ideas of K. D. Ushinsky (1824 - 1870 / 71) and his students. Influenced by the public elementary education received a significant impetus for further development. As well as parochial schools(teachers for whom were trained by church teachers' schools that were under the jurisdiction of the Synod), began to operate Zemstvo three-year schools(at that time the most common type of elementary school), taught in which representatives of the zemstvo intelligentsia, as a rule, were true ascetics, bearers of democratic culture. Education in them was better delivered: in addition to the usual subjects for a parochial school - writing, reading, the four rules of arithmetic and the law of God, geography, natural history, and history were studied here.

The average education along with the humanities classical gymnasiums(the number of students in which increased almost 3 times in the 60-80s) gave schools– since 1864 real(the curriculum included a large amount of knowledge in the exact and natural sciences) and since 1873 commercial(where they studied - accounting, commodity science, etc.). Opened during the reform period women's gymnasiums, which by the 90s there were about 200; for the daughters of the Orthodox clergy, there were about 60 diocesan schools. During the period of counter-reforms, the famous circular "on the cook's children" of 1887 closed access to education to the poor.

In the pre-reform era, qualitative changes were outlined in higher education. In Odessa and Tomsk were opened new universities. Liberal university charter 1863, which granted autonomy to these educational institutions, led not only to an increase in the number of students (almost 3 times in the 60-90s), but also to the democratization of their composition, however, unevenly (in 1897 in St. and officials amounted to about 2/3, and in Kharkov - less than 40%). The best scientific personnel (A. M. Butlerov, D. I. Mendeleev, K. A. Timiryazev, etc.) began to be concentrated in the universities of the country, scientific work was revived and the educational level of graduates was raised. The first shoots have appeared higher education for women higher women's courses that trained doctors and teachers (Alarchinsky in St. Petersburg and Lubyansky in Moscow, 1869; courses of Professor V.I. Guerrier in Moscow, 1872; Bestuzhevsky (named after their director, historian, Professor K.N. Petersburg, 1878, etc.).

Understanding the shortcomings of the existing education system, representatives of the advanced public contributed to the formation of extracurricular education: since 1859, free sunday schools, the program of which was wider than in government schools, and included familiarity with the basics of physics, chemistry, natural history, etc. The government also in a number of cases initiated out-of-school education. So, starting from 1871, there were held arousing wide interest folk readings, in which historical, military and religious and moral themes prevailed.

In the 1970s and 1990s, the number of periodicals in Russian (up to 1 thousand titles in 1900). The type of “thick” magazine finally took shape, publishing literary and artistic, journalistic, critical, scientific materials and having a significant impact on social and cultural life (“Sovremennik”, “Russian Word”, “Bulletin of Europe”). Book publishing grew even more rapidly (in the 1860s and 90s from 1800 to 11500 titles per year). All this was possible, since the printing base in Russia more than tripled over the three post-reform decades (in 1864 there were about 300 printing houses, in 1894 there were already more than a thousand). The private firms of M. O. Volf, F. F. Pavlenkov, and I. D. Sytin occupied a leading position among publishers, producing educational, popular science, and fiction, including cheap editions of Russian classics. The number of bookstores has increased 6 times (up to 3 thousand in the late 90s). In cities and villages, the number of libraries and readers increased, opened by public institutions and bodies local government. In 1862, the first Public Library in Moscow (now the Russian State Library) was opened. The main role in the development of cultural and educational institutions belonged to the intelligentsia, including the Zemstvo.

End XIX century

Education and enlightenment

The education system in Russia at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher school (universities, institutes). According to 1913 data, literate citizens of the Russian Empire (with the exception of children under 8 years old) averaged 38-39%.

To a large extent, the development of public education was associated with the activities of the democratic public. The policy of the authorities in this area does not appear to be consistent. So, in 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law "On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire" for consideration by the II State Duma, but this draft never received the force of law.

The growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. The number of students in many universities has increased markedly - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.5 thousand in 1907. Private higher educational institutions (P. F. Lesgaft’s Free Higher School, V. M. Bekhterev’s Psychoneurological Institute, and others) became widespread. The Shanyavsky University, which worked in 1908-18 at the expense of the liberal figure in public education A. L. Shanyavsky (1837-1905) and provided higher and secondary education, played an important role in the democratization of higher education. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views.

Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - work courses(for example, Prechistensky in Moscow, among whose teachers were such prominent scientists as I. M. Sechenov, V. I. Picheta, etc.), educational workers' societies and people's houses- original clubs with a library, an assembly hall, a tea and trading shop (Ligovsky People's House of Countess S.V. Panina in St. Petersburg).

The development of periodicals and book publishing had a great influence on education. The circulation of the mass literary, artistic and popular science "thin" magazine "Niva" (1894-1916) by 1900 increased from 9 to 235 thousand copies. In terms of the number of published books, Russia ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan).

The largest book publishers A. S. Suvorin (1835-1912) in St. Petersburg and I. D. Sytin (1851-1934) in Moscow contributed to the familiarization of the people with literature, releasing books at affordable prices (“Cheap Library” by Suvorin, “Library for Self-Education” Sytin). In 1899 - 1913, the book publishing partnership "Knowledge" worked in St. Petersburg.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Architectural Ensemble of Smolny" N. Semennikova Leningrad. "Art" 1980

"History of national culture" T. Balakina Moscow. "Spectrum-5" 1994

"I know the world" N. Chudakova Moscow. "AST" 1996

"Russian language" R. Pankov / L. Grishkovskaya Kaunas. "Shviesa" 2002