With the German attack on the USSR Soviet Union there was an urgent need for military equipment, to the development of which they turned the best minds engineering and physical sciences. During the war years, the creators of weapons and military equipment. Special attention paid to improving the quality of artillery systems and mortars. Soviet scientists managed to reduce the development and implementation of new types of weapons many times over. Thus, the well-proven 152-mm howitzer was designed and manufactured in 1943 in 18 days, and its mass production was mastered in 1.5 months. About half of all types of small arms and the vast majority of new models of artillery systems in service with the army in 1945 were created and put into series during the war. The calibers of tank and anti-tank artillery have almost doubled, and the armor penetration of shells has increased by about 5 times. The USSR surpassed Germany in terms of the average annual output of field artillery by more than 2 times, mortars by 5 times, and anti-tank guns by 2.6 times. Through the efforts of Soviet tank builders, especially the workers and engineers of the Ural "Tankograd", the enemy's advantage in armored vehicles was relatively quickly overcome. By 1943, the preponderance of the Soviet Armed Forces in tanks and self-propelled artillery mounts began to grow. Domestic tanks and self-propelled guns in terms of their combat characteristics significantly surpassed their foreign counterparts. Since the second half of 1942, the production of aircraft and aircraft engines has been steadily increasing. The Il-2 attack aircraft became the most massive aircraft of the Soviet Air Force. Most of the Soviet combat aircraft outperformed the aircraft of the German Air Force. During the war, 25 aircraft models (including modifications), as well as 23 types of aircraft engines, entered mass production. A time has begun for the entire people—workers, peasants, and intelligentsia—to work hard, steadily directed towards socialist industrialization.
In the second half of 1941, 76 research institutes were evacuated to the east, which included 118 academicians, 182 corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and thousands of researchers. Their activities were directed by the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences, relocated to Sverdlovsk. Here in May 1942 on general meeting Academy discussed the tasks facing scientists in the conditions of war. Leading directions scientific research were the development of military-technical problems, scientific assistance to industry, the mobilization of raw materials, for which intersectoral commissions and committees were created. So, at the end of 1941, a commission was created to mobilize the resources of the Urals, which also oversees the reserves of Siberia and Kazakhstan.
In close cooperation with practical engineers, scientists have found methods for high-speed melting of metal in open-hearth furnaces, casting steel High Quality, obtaining a new standard rental. Somewhat later, a special commission of scientists headed by Academician E. A. Chudakov made important proposals for mobilizing the resources of the Volga and Kama regions. Thanks to geologists, new iron ore deposits were explored in the Kuzbass, new oil sources in Bashkiria, and a molybdenum ore deposit in Kazakhstan. Scientists A.P. Aleksandrov, B.A. Gaev, A.R. Regel and others successfully solved the problem of mine protection of ships. In 1943, a technology was developed for separating plutonium from irradiated uranium. In the fall of 1944, under the leadership of Academician I. V. Kurchatov, a version of the atomic bomb with a spherical detonation "inside" was created, and in early 1945 a plutonium production plant was launched.
Scientists of the USSR have achieved significant success in the field of biology, medicine and Agriculture. They found new vegetable types of raw materials for industry, sought out ways to increase the yield of food and industrial crops. Thus, in the eastern regions of the country there were urgently cultivated sugar beets. The activities of medical scientists were of great importance: academicians N. N. Burdenko, A. N. Bakulev, L. A. Orbeli, A. I. Abrikosov, professors-surgeons S. S. Yudin and A. V. Vishnevsky and others, introduced into practice new methods and means of treating sick and wounded soldiers. Doctor of Medical Sciences V.K. Modestov made a number of important defense inventions, including the replacement of hygroscopic cellulose wool, the use of turbine oil as the basis for the manufacture of ointments, etc.
Necessary condition successful development of the national economy of the country was the continuous training of new personnel in universities and technical schools. In 1941, the number of universities decreased from 817,000 to 460,000, admission to them was halved, the number of students decreased by 3.5 times, and the training period was 3-3.5 years. By the end of the war, however, student numbers, especially as a result of the increased enrollment of women, approached pre-war levels. An important role in the development of pedagogy during the war years was played by the Academy, founded in 1943. pedagogical sciences RSFSR, headed by Academician V.P. Potemkin.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF MOSCOW
_____________________________________________________________________________
SUMMARY ON THE HISTORY OF THE HOMELAND
"Soviet science during the Great Patriotic War"
Fulfilled Art. gr.
Consultant
Moscow 2005
I. Introduction……………………………………….…………………………………2.1
II. Science during the Great Patriotic War………………………………….3
1. Line of scientific defense………………………………………………6
2. Soviet historical science…………………………………….15
3. Book publishing………………………………………………………….16
III. Conclusion. Their share of victory…………………………………………………..21
Literature………………………………………………………………………….22
I. Introduction
This year marks the 60th anniversary of the great victory. How many tears were shed, how many solemn speeches were said, but our gratitude to the great liberators will not dry out, people who, without sparing their lives, went on the attack, did not sleep for days inventing more powerful armor or standing behind the factory conveyor. And although historical realities force us to reconsider the already unsweetened pill of victory, the number of victims, the methods of achieving victory, and its goals, Stalin's camps, injustice, but a simple soldier, scientist, worker - did not deserve the attitude that is now practiced towards them. They did everything for victory, everything for the freedom of their homeland. Their feats touch the greatest feelings of gratitude to those millions of famous and nameless heroes who worked hard for the good of a common cause.
I chose this topic to try to rehabilitate in our memory the convicted and executed scientists, the intelligentsia. Those who expressed their opinion, independent of the party, or even simply slandered by an anonymous anonymous envious person. They did not have any rights then, except to die for their homeland. Not a single marshal and general was as patriotic as they were. Working day and night in camp casemates, in swamps evaporating stench, not seeing encouragement and elementary gratitude, but confident in victory, even if “... one for all ...”!
Today, their contribution, especially in the West, is greatly underestimated by historians, although in such conditions as they worked, it was impossible to live, let alone create. They created the groundwork for decades to come, they made a huge contribution not only to Soviet, but also to world science.
We bow our heads before their exploits, although they were not at the forefront, they did not run shouting "Hurrah" to the enemy's bunker. They had their own war, not so noticeable at first glance, but no less hot and dramatic, because on the fields of scientific battles, especially on our side, there were many victims. Whose armor is stronger, whose planes fly faster, that was their front line of defense. Tens of millions of soldiers died on the battlefields, and how many scientists were shot or died in the camps. When we know the names of warrior heroes who distinguished themselves, the names of these heroes from the side of science will be kept secret for a long time, and even by the walls of the camps.
How much they have done: scientists have made a significant contribution to solving such defense problems as the creation of new explosives and armor-piercing shells, high-strength armor for tanks, more advanced optical instruments for aviation, artillery, tanks and submarines, increasing the speed and range of aircraft , improvement of radio equipment and radar devices, new methods of obtaining fuel and plastics. But their successes did not end with the invention of new, more effective ways of killing, despite all the prohibitions, they brought their own into civilian life, creating projects with the expectation of a future peaceful life. Space exploration projects, philosophical calculations, theories of "peaceful atom". Despite all the difficulties, they did not give up, did not succumb to the panic prevailing in the first year of the war. They did not try to escape, they did everything to bring the day of victory at least a little closer.
So let's learn the lessons of history and try to do everything in our power to prevent the tragedy of the 20th century from repeating itself.
II. Science during the Great Patriotic War
The coverage of this issue has been restructured to the greatest extent in accordance with the requirements of the time. The price of victory is the key problem in the history of the War. However, our historiography still reduces matters only to the meaning of victory. The ideas known from wartimes have not yet been outlived: "what kind of war without victims", "war will write off everything", "the winners are not judged". Whatever the victims were: the great minds of that time, expressing their opinion, unlike the opinion of the ruling elite, or a simple soldier who gave his life for the future of his homeland. And although today it is already difficult to convince anyone that there were no gross miscalculations by the leadership of the USSR on the eve and during the war, unjustified repressions against workers of science and the intelligentsia, we often still try to combine good and evil in its history under lofty words " heroic and tragic. Science played an exceptional role, the exceptional courage of the army and people, their ability to surpass the enemy in science, technology and the art of war. Until now, the exact number of dead military personnel, dead in the camps of scientists, shot oppositionists is unknown, although during the years of the Great Patriotic War it was science that made a significant contribution to the development of the defense potential of the USSR. In the second half of 1941, 76 research institutes were evacuated to the east, which included 118 academicians, 182 corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and thousands of researchers. Their activities were directed by the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences, relocated to Sverdlovsk. Here, in May 1942, at the general meeting of the academy, the tasks facing scientists in the conditions of war were discussed. The leading areas of scientific research were the development of military-technical problems, scientific assistance to industry, and the mobilization of raw materials, for which intersectoral commissions and committees were created. So, at the end of 1941, a commission was created to mobilize the resources of the Urals, which also oversees the reserves of Siberia and Kazakhstan. The commission was headed by academicians A. A. Baikov, I. P. Bardin, S. G. Strumilin, M. A. Pavlov and others. In close cooperation with practical engineers, scientists found methods for high-speed melting of metal in open-hearth furnaces, high quality, obtaining a new standard. Somewhat later, a special commission of scientists headed by Academician E. A. Chudakov made important proposals for mobilizing the resources of the Volga and Kama regions. Thanks to geologists A. E. Fersman, K. I. Satpaev, V. A. Obruchev and others, new iron ore deposits in Kuzbass, new oil sources in Bashkiria, and a molybdenum ore deposit in Kazakhstan were explored. The contribution of mathematicians P. S. Aleksandrov, S. N. Bernshtein, I. M. Vinogradov, N. I. Muskhelishvili was significant. Physicists A. F. Ioffe, S. I. Vavilov, P. L. Kapitsa, L. I. Mandelstam, chemists N. D. Zelinsky, I. V. Grebenshchikov, A. N. Nesmeyanov, A. E. Favorsky, N. N. Semenov. Scientists A.P. Aleksandrov, B/A. Gaev, A. R. Regel and others successfully solved the problem of mine protection of ships. In 1943, a technology was developed for separating plutonium from irradiated uranium. In the fall of 1944, under the leadership of Academician I. V. Kurchatov, a version of the atomic bomb with a spherical detonation “inside” was created, and at the beginning of 1945, a plutonium production plant was launched.
Scientists of the USSR have achieved significant success in the field of biology, medicine and agriculture. They found new vegetable types of raw materials for industry, sought out ways to increase the yield of food and industrial crops. So, in the eastern regions of the country, the cultivation of sugar beet was urgently mastered. The activities of medical scientists were of great importance: academicians N. N. Burdenko, A. N. Bakulev, L. A. Orbeli, A. I. Abrikosov, professors-surgeons S. S. Yudin and A. V. Vishnevsky and others, introduced into practice new methods and means of treating sick and wounded soldiers. Doctor of Medical Sciences V.K. Modestov made a number of important defense inventions, including the replacement of hygroscopic cellulose wool, the use of turbine oil as the basis for the manufacture of ointments, etc.
A necessary condition for the successful development of the national economy of the country was the continuous training of new personnel in universities and technical schools. In 1941, the number of universities decreased from 817,000 to 460,000, admission to them was halved, the number of students decreased by 3.5 times, and the training period was 3-3.5 years. By the end of the war, however, student numbers, especially as a result of the increased enrollment of women, approached pre-war levels.
During the war, the creators of weapons and military equipment worked fruitfully. Particular attention was paid to improving the quality of artillery systems and mortars. In this area, great merit belongs to the scientists and designers V. G. Grabin, I. I. Ivanov, M. Ya. Krupchatnikov, and others. Degtyareva, S. G. Simonova, F. V. Tokareva, G. S. Shpagina. Soviet scientists managed to reduce the development and implementation of new types of weapons many times over. Thus, the well-proven 152-mm howitzer was designed and manufactured in 1943 in 18 days, and its mass production was mastered in 1.5 months. About half of all types of small arms and the vast majority of new models of artillery systems in service with the army in 1945 were created and put into series during the war. The calibers of tank and anti-tank artillery have almost doubled, and the armor penetration of shells has increased by about 5 times. The USSR surpassed Germany in terms of the average annual output of field artillery by more than 2 times, mortars by 5 times, and anti-tank guns by 2.6 times. Through the efforts of Soviet tank builders, especially the workers and engineers of the Ural "Tankograd", the enemy's advantage in armored vehicles was relatively quickly overcome. By 1943, the preponderance of the Soviet Armed Forces in tanks and self-propelled artillery mounts began to grow. Domestic tanks and self-propelled guns in terms of their combat characteristics significantly surpassed their foreign counterparts. A huge merit in their creation belonged to N. A. Astrov, N. L. Dukhov, Zh. Ya. Kotin, M. I. Koshkin, V. V. Krylov, N. A. Kucherenko, A. A. Morozov, L. S. Troyanov and others.
Since the second half of 1942, the production of aircraft and aircraft engines has been steadily increasing. The Il-2 attack aircraft became the most massive aircraft of the Soviet Air Force. Most of the Soviet combat aircraft outperformed the aircraft of the German Air Force. During the war, 25 aircraft models (including modifications), as well as 23 types of aircraft engines, entered mass production. Aircraft designers M. I. Gurevich, S. V. Ilyushin, S. A. Lavochkin, A. I. Mikoyan, V. M. Myasishchev, V. M. Petlyakov, N. N Polikarpov, P. O. Sukhoi, A. N. Tupolev, A; S. Yakovlev, creators of aircraft engines V. Ya. Klimov, A. A. Mikulin, S. K. Tumansky.
1 . scientific defense line
In May 1985, during the celebration of the 40th anniversary of the Victory, an exhibition was opened at the Museum of the History of Kazan University, which we called "The Line of Scientific Defense". It was dedicated to the scientific feat of scientists from Moscow and Leningrad institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences, evacuated to Kazan during the Great Patriotic War.The first visitors to the exhibition were the participants of the 42nd visiting session of the Academy. sciences of the USSR, headed by its president A.P.
Alexandrov and vice-presidents V.A. Kotelnikov, A.L. Yanshin and K.V. Frolov. In the book of honored guests of the museum, their review is preserved: “We heartily thank the museum staff for creating such an interesting and impressive exposition and for excellent demonstration of it to us. political, public and literary figures, outstanding physicians - this whole cohort shows that a creative atmosphere reigned at Kazan University, something new was born. And so far, the Zavoisky-Altshuler school gave birth to one of the most important areas - resonance radiospectroscopy. If we take into account the early areas of science, born here - non-Euclidean geometry, outstanding chemical research and medical research, then we can say that Kazan University is outstanding not only in our country, but also in world science. We wish the museum staff further creative success, we think that it would be good to create a traveling exposition for acquaintance of our whole country."
The creation of the exhibition was preceded by a large research and search work of the museum staff. For more than two years we worked in the archives of the Academy in Moscow and Leningrad, in the archives of academic institutes and laboratories, met and corresponded with famous scientists, relatives and friends of those who did not live to see those days. The interest and support of the leadership of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences and the archive of the Academy, the director of the archive B. Levshin, many Muscovites, Leningraders, Kazanians and our disinterested assistants (for example, N.E. Zavoiskaya in those years was the "extraordinary and plenipotentiary representative" of the museum in Moscow) contributed to the success of our work, allowed us to collect the richest collection, numbering over five hundred items. It contains documents, photographs, books and manuscripts, letters and memoirs, personal belongings of academicians A.F. Ioffe, S.I. Vavilova, L.D. Landau, I.E. Tamma, K.K. Marjanishvili, A.N. Frumkina, I.I. Tolstoy. This collection formed the basis of the exposition, which revealed the invaluable contribution of scientists of the USSR Academy of Sciences to the Victory. In July \W, a decision was made to evacuate the institutions of the USSR Academy of Sciences from Moscow and Leningrad. On July 19, Vice-President O.Yu. flew to Kazan. Schmidt, who was entrusted with the management of the placement of academic institutions, staff and their families. The museum keeps the travel certificate and air tickets of O.Yu. Schmidt. On July 23, trains with people and equipment began to arrive in Kazan. The city hospitably received the evacuees. A.E. played a major role in their placement. Arbuzov, appointed authorized by the presidium for their arrangement. Subsequently, Academician A.N. Nesmeyanov, who headed the Institute of Organic Chemistry, recalled: “He also met our echelon, arranged for an overnight stay in the university building, and we immediately felt warmth and care. their adaptation. At the center of all this vigorous activity stood A.E., always calm, benevolent, managerial.
Kazan University became the center of academic life, which provided the Academy with its classrooms, laboratories, all ancillary and service premises. Temporarily, assembly and sports halls were equipped as hostels. In the museum, in its main exposition, the drawing "Assembly Hall during the war years" is shown - this friendly caricature was placed in one of the issues of the wall newspaper of the Leningrad Physicotechnical Institute. I remember well the gym in 1943, since I lived there with my mother, an employee of the Leningrad Botanical Institute. Now it is difficult to imagine the hall of the university museum during the war years: one hundred and fifty beds, separated from each other by sheets or cardboard; There are no passages between them, you can undress or dress only by crouching or squatting, in the hall it is twilight, the incessant hum of voices and the noise of stoves ...
In the main building of the university there was the presidium of the Academy, headed by vice-presidents O.Yu. Schmidt and E.A. Chudakov, and since 1943 - A.F. Ioffe and L.A. Orbeli. It also housed several large academic institutes, including the Lebedev Physical Institute, the Institute of Physical Problems and the Phystech.
THEM. Frank, at that time a senior researcher in one of the FIAN laboratories (later an academician, Nobel Prize winner), told me about the incredibly difficult living conditions and everyday life of the evacuated scientists. The institute removed almost all scientific equipment from Moscow. There was not enough space to accommodate him - the laboratory was provided with one room - and most of it remained in the boxes that cluttered the corridors of the university. When it was necessary to get some kind of device, many large heavy boxes had to be rearranged, then they were again nailed down and piled on top of each other. The room was poorly heated - the temperature was close to zero, and sometimes even lower, so in winter they worked in coats. They ate very little. Worries about subsistence, about the purchase of food and bread cards, queues in the canteen, and the cultivation of tiny vegetable gardens took up a lot of time, distracting from scientific work.
Academician I.E. Tamm (I don't know whether jokingly or seriously) recalled that one of the employees of the Fiztekh, located in the premises of the Ethnographic Museum, used the museum exhibit for its intended purpose:
he had ground a handful of rye from somewhere with the help of primitive millstones belonging to some Indian tribe. Cutlets and kebabs from shellfish, which were caught in Kazanka, were very popular. A song was composed in their honor (author - Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences L.A. Galin).
SONG ABOUT SHELLS
Following the Lord, we will begin a song about slippery mollusks,
Those who served as nourishment to the men of grateful science.
Many mollusks live in the seas, subject to Poseidon,
In overseas countries they deliver brilliant pearls.
Also others are known, of which the divine purple
Previously, the porphyry of crowned bearers could be mined for coloring.
But our song is not about them. In the domain of the god Hiereus,
Who is also subject to the flowing rivers in the valleys,
The tribe lives differently.
Not glorious with bright pearls,
They do not deliver purple, but they are suitable for food.
It is clear to everyone how to cook them. We won't describe it.
Let's just say that we are edible clam cutlets
Ate and they were satisfied and we call on everyone to eat.
We caught a lot of shellfish in the Sarmatian Kazanka river.
Very big and delicious.
But will it be so in Moscow?
That we do not know, and now we send a prayer to Nereus,
So that even there he would supply us with these molluscs in plenty
.
Already in August-September 1941, the first plan for the work of the Academy of Sciences under war conditions was developed. It included more than two hundred topics related to the tasks of the country's defense. At the end of September - beginning of October, an extended meeting of the presidium was held in Kazan with the participation of directors of institutes, at which the topics of scientific research were discussed; a resolution was adopted on the creation of a Thematic Commission in order to further improve the planning of defense work, which included O.Yu. Schmidt, E.A. Chudakov, A.F. Ioffe, N.N. Semenov, V.P. Nikitin and other scientists.
The museum funds contain the text of the decision of the Presidium of October 2, 1941, as well as plans and reports of academic institutions for 1941-43.
On the work of the Physical Institute. P.N. Lebedeva Academician S.I. Vavilov later wrote: "Without any coercion, the laboratories changed the topics of their work so that they helped the Red Army, the military industry, and hospitals."
S.I. Vavilov, who simultaneously headed two institutes - FIAN and the State Optical Institute, evacuated to Yoshkar-Ola, managed to combine their efforts to solve the most important defense tasks. In 1942, employees of the luminescence laboratory, which was directly supervised by Vavilov, developed methods and means for blackout military installations. At one of the Kazan enterprises, the production of permanent lighting compositions was organized. New means of blackout were sent to aircraft gunpowder factories, used to mask the marinas on the Volga. Together with his "employee S.A. Fridman Vavilov developed a series produced at the Kazan plant fluorescent lamps special design for the Navy. Special optical devices were made for conducting aimed fire at night.
The creation of acoustic trawls - an effective means of combating enemy mines - was successfully carried out by another laboratory at the FIAN, headed by N.N. Andreev. He, together with the staff of his laboratory, carried out a significant part of the work on warships of the Black and Baltic Seas. With their help, about forty warships were equipped with acoustic trawls.
Important military topics related to radar were developed in the laboratory of N.D. Papalexy. In the laboratory of B.M. Voula designed a de-icing device for aircraft. G.S. In the winter of 1941-42, Landsberg organized optical workshops in one of the rooms of the Museum of Local Lore, where steeloscopes were made. The devices were immediately handed over to representatives of defense plants and front-line repair units of the Red Army. In total, about a hundred instruments were manufactured during the war before the resumption of industrial production.
One of the greatest achievements of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology, headed by A.F. Ioffe, was the work to protect warships from magnetic mines and torpedoes. It is known that not a single ship equipped with an anti-mine protection system was blown up by an enemy mine. This work was initiated by A.P. Aleksandrov and B.A. Gaev, and the most active participants in the implementation of this method - I.V. Kurchatov, P.G. Stepanov, V.R. Regel and V.M. Tuchkevich, who worked in different fleets. In 1942, scientists were awarded the Stalin Prize of the first degree. Next to the photographs of scientists at the exhibition, I.V. Kurchatov, sent to Sevastopol to carry out an urgent special assignment in the Black Sea Fleet.
“I am very sad that life is not very easy,” Igor Vasilyevich wrote to his wife in Kazan, “but don’t be sad, the time will come and happy days will come again for our work, and therefore for us.”
I quote in full the letter of A.F. Ioffe to the Molotov District Military Commissariat of Kazan - a petition for the award of A.P. Alexandrov with the medal "For the Defense of Stalingrad": "Head of the laboratory of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Stalin Prize laureate, Prof. Anatoly Petrovich Alexandrov in August-September 1942 was on a special assignment from the Deputy People's Commissar of the Navy in Stalingrad, where he supervised protection of the ships of the Volga Military Flotilla.Professor Alexandrov's work proceeded directly in a combat situation on the ships of the VVF, often under conditions of bombing and shelling.Prof. Alexandrov's clear and selfless work ensured the successful completion of a task vital for the defense of Stalingrad.Professor Alexandrov dropped out of Stalingrad only by order of the commander of the VVF, Rear Admiral Comrade Rogachev, after all the necessary work has been completed."
I remember the excitement and tears in the eyes of Anatoly Petrovich when he read this letter at the exhibition in the museum.
One of the major departments of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology, headed by A.F. Ioffe, studied the electrical and thermal properties of semiconductors. His research was used in the manufacture of the "partisan kettle" - a thermoelectric generator, which was intended to power radio stations in partisan detachments and reconnaissance groups. At a meeting with Anna Vasilievna Ioffe, the widow of Abram Fedorovich, we asked her to tell us what this "bowler" is (AV. Ioffe is a physicist). On her advice, we found both a description and a photograph of the "bowler" in the journal "Science and Life" for 1965, and a photograph of it appeared in our exposition. Anna Vasilievna donated to the museum photographs of the outstanding physicist in different years of his life, monographs, articles of the war years, his personal belongings.
Outstanding event in scientific life The academy was the work of P.L. Kapitsa on the creation of new methods for achieving low temperatures and obtaining liquid oxygen. Arriving in Kazan in July 1941, the Institute for Physical Problems immediately set about installing the equipment. And soon oxygen began to flow to Kazan hospitals. “War exacerbates the need for oxygen,” said P.L. Kapitsa, speaking at a meeting of the presidium on May 18, 1943. “We had to
act vigorously in order to use for our country all the possibilities that our method of obtaining oxygen opens up for industry. "In Kazan, Kapitsa created the most powerful turbine plant in the world to obtain it in large quantities needed in the military industry. "These works combined scientific and engineering talent, perhaps the genius of Pyotr Leonidovich," V.F. Ioffe noted.
For more than two years the Institute of Chemical Physics headed by Academician N.N. Semenov, later a Nobel Prize winner. The Institute deeply studied the processes of combustion and explosions. Valuable research in the field of the theory of combustion and detonation in gases was carried out by a young scientist, Professor Ya.B. Zeldovich, later an academician, three times Hero of Socialist Labor. Another researcher of the institute, Professor Yu.B. Khariton, also later an academician and three times Hero of Socialist Labor, was engaged in the study of the combustion of propellant rockets for "Katyushas". From the archives of the Institute of Chemical Physics, we received two remarkable documents - the social obligations of Ya.B. Zeldovich and Yu.B Khariton for the II quarter of 1942. On one of them, Yakov Borisovich wrote in his hand that he undertakes to fully, on time and at a high quality level fulfill the most important points of the quarterly plan: to find out the nature of anomalies in the combustion of gunpowder by intervening in the process; investigate the flammability of gunpowder under various conditions; make theoretical calculations.
It is not difficult to understand what great significance these studies, which were awarded the Stalin Prize, had for the defense of the country.
I showed this document to Zeldovich when I met him in Moscow in 1984. He joked and laughed a lot, but did not mind showing it at the exhibition. Yakov Borisovich donated a photograph to the museum, writing on it "40 years later": Yu.B. Khariton, Ya.B. Zeldovich and V.I. Gol'danskii. Forty years ago, when they were very young, they lived and worked in Kazan.
The Radium Institute was headed by the founder of the scientific school of radiochemists, the creator of the radium industry V.G. Khlopin. In Kazan, he developed a method for obtaining light compositions using radiothorium. With his direct participation, the processing of state stocks of radium was carried out in order to isolate radiothorium for the production of light compositions necessary for the defense industry. In 1943 Khlopin and his colleagues were awarded the Stalin Prize for this work.
The most important research work aimed at achieving an early victory was carried out by employees of all chemical institutes. At the Institute of Organic Chemistry, Professor I.N. Nazarov, later an academician, developed carbinol glue, which found wide application for the repair of military equipment in factories and in the field. Next to the unique exhibit - Nazarov's glue at the exhibition in the museum, there were photographs of the institute's employees teaching military engineers and technicians to use the glue, books on the use of glue for the repair of auto parts and tanks, as well as letters from the fronts reporting on the effective results of its use in the army.
In wartime conditions, the scientists of the Academy lived a full-blooded creative life: fundamental theoretical research did not stop, and the defense of Ph.D.
and doctoral dissertations. The results of the research were discussed at scientific conferences. Jointly with Kazan University, jubilee sessions were held dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the synthesis of aniline by N. Zinin, the 300th anniversary of I. Newton, and the 150th anniversary of N. Lobachevsky.
Many employees of academic institutions worked at Kazan University at the same time. The students of the Faculty of History and Philology were very lucky in these years, they listened to the lectures of academicians of the European Union. Tarle, BD. Grekova, I.I. Tolstoy. Former student N. Munkov kept the invitation cards to lectures of academicians and donated them to the museum. Lectures to students of the Physics and Mathematics and the Faculty of Chemistry were read by prominent scientists B.N. Delaunay and L.S. Pontryagin, AN. Nesmeyanov, AF. Kapustinsky, PA Rebinder, AA Grinberg. Employees of the Academy of Sciences actively participated in lecture propaganda among the population of the city. The Bureau of Scientific and Technical Propaganda was headed by Academician A. M. Deborin. Only from November 1, 1941 to March 1, 1942, more than two hundred lectures were given.
A significant contribution to the history of national science was made by the works created by scientists in Kazan. This is the "Crimean War" by E.V. Tarle, "Notes on the theory of turbulence" Academician of the Academy of Sciences. Kolmogorov, the well-known "Kazan" work of another prominent mathematician P.S. Aleksandrov, articles by D.S. Likhachev, published in 1943-44 in the "Historical Journal" and the journal "Star": "Culture of Russia at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries", "Culture Kievan Rus under J. the Wise", "The military art of ancient Russia...". In 1943-44, corresponding member Ya.I. Frenkel wrote his well-known monograph "The Kinetic Theory of Liquids" in Kazan. Yakov Ilyich's son Viktor Yakovlevich sent it to the museum the first edition of the book and a photograph of the house on Schmidt Street where the physicist lived. In the garden adjacent to the house there was a small shed, which Yakov Ilyich adapted for an office, in which he wrote this work at a table made of a piece of plywood, laid on his knees .
The outstanding mathematician, mechanic, shipbuilder Academician A. N. Krylov wrote the wonderful book "My Memoirs" in Kazan in 1941. Sergei Petrovich Kapitsa, grandson of A.N. Krylova, in her letter to the museum, says: “I remember well how my grandfather read his manuscript in the evenings, and my brother and other family members listened with bated breath. Reading sometimes came late, sometimes the candles went out, and it continued in uneven light kerosene lamp, giving it an even more extraordinary look." The museum keeps several pages of the manuscript of Alexei Nikolaevich, the first edition of the book in 1942 with the author's autograph. The museum received a later edition of the book as a gift from the daughter of A.N. Krylova Anna Alekseevna Kapitsa with her dedication: "This book was written by Alexei Nikolaevich in Kazan in 1941, it's good that it will be in the KSU museum."
The meeting with Anna Alekseevna was imprinted in my memory for a long time. At the end of 1984, during the next visit to Moscow, P.E. Rubinin, referent P.L. Kapitsa, having phoned Anna Alekseevna, accompanied me and the museum employee N.V. Pelnikevich to a beautiful two-story mansion on the territory of the Institute of Physical Problems. A submarine lived here from 1956 to 1984. Kapitsa. Everything in the house is preserved in the form in which it was during his lifetime (now there is a memorial museum in it).
Anna Alekseevna met us very friendly and hospitable. But a feeling of excitement and awe did not leave us - we were in the house where one of the most outstanding scientists of the 20th century lived and worked, a man of great courage, unquestioned authority throughout the scientific world (we felt the same awe in the apartment of A.F. Ioffe ). Anna Alekseevna warmly recalled Kazan, spoke about the people who surrounded her, about Kazan friends, spoke with gratitude about the gynecologist M.V. Monasypova, with whom he did not break contact. And she did not say a word about everyday difficulties and hardships that her large family simply could not help but experience during the evacuation. Nor did she mention her selfless work in the hospital. We learned about this from the book of the surgeon V.V. Kovanova "Vocation". Every day, as if at work, she came on duty, carefully looked after the seriously wounded. Anna Alekseevna took her teenage sons Sergei and Andrei, future famous scientists, with her to the hospital, who helped roll bandages, procure material for the operating room and dressing room, served water or tea to the wounded, fed lunch.
Assistance to wounded soldiers of the Red Army by employees of the Academy of Sciences and the wives of scientists is a special page in the life of the USSR Academy of Sciences evacuated to Kazan.
Significant assistance to Kazan hospitals was provided by the Physiological Institute. Pavlov and the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology, headed by Academician L.A. Orbeli. The teams of these institutes and Leon Abgarovich himself have invested a lot of work in improving the qualifications of hospital doctors, organized a series of lectures on physiological and medical topics. Orbeli often visited hospitals, sometimes, at the request of surgeons, attended operations, found time to analyze in detail the most severe cases of injuries, delicately advised him to apply one or another method of treatment.
With all their might, scientists tried to help the front, and not only with their scientific work in institutes and laboratories. Everyone, from a laboratory assistant to an academician, was a regular participant in numerous subbotniks and Sundays: they loaded coal, unloaded wagons and barges, cleared the airport runway from snow...
Of particular interest and animation to the visitors of the exhibition was the Order on the Kazan Group of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology dated January 8, 1943, placed in the exposition: “In pursuance of the order of the manager of the USSR Academy of Sciences, I order Comrades Aleksandrov A.P., Regel V.R., Shishkin N. I., Shchepkin G.Ya., to arrive at "Techsnab" to comrade Stepanov to load coal. Foreman - AP. Alexandrov. "
The passionate voices of scientists were heard at rallies, on the radio, in the press. At the beginning of 1942, a movement arose in Kazan to create a Defense Fund. Many scientists contributed their money savings and state awards to it. Applications to the accounting department of the Academy of Sciences, written on scraps of paper by academicians E.V. Tarle, BD. Grekov, AN. Krylov, ND. Papaleksi with a request during the war to deduct one-day earnings from their salary to the National Defense Fund.
The victory in the Great Patriotic War coincided with the celebration of the 220th anniversary of the Academy of Sciences. At the anniversary session, words of gratitude were expressed to Soviet scientists who helped the front and rear, who made a huge contribution to the defeat of the enemy, to the Victory.
In connection with the 275th anniversary of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the museum again turned to one of the most heroic pages of its history. On May 13, the second exhibition dedicated to the scientific feat of scientists of the USSR Academy of Sciences opened here.
The military hard times dealt a blow to the education system. Tens of thousands of school buildings were destroyed, and military hospitals were often placed in the survivors. Due to the lack of paper, schoolchildren sometimes wrote in the margins of old newspapers. School textbooks were replaced by the teacher's story. But the education of children did not stop. It was carried out even in besieged Moscow, Sevastopol, Odessa, in besieged Leningrad, in partisan detachments of Ukraine and Belarus. In the areas of the country occupied by the Germans, the education of children almost completely ceased.
Soviet scientists made a great contribution to the victory. All the main areas of scientific research were focused on defeating the enemy.
The main scientific centers of the country moved to the East - to Kazan, to the Urals, to Central Asia. Leading research institutes and institutions of the Academy of Sciences were evacuated here. They not only continued the work they had begun, but also helped in the training of local scientific personnel. More than 2 thousand employees of the USSR Academy of Sciences fought as part of the army.
Despite the difficulties of wartime, the state paid great attention to the development of domestic science. The number of scientific institutions of the country during the war years was replenished with new institutes and scientific centers. The West Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences was established in Novosibirsk, the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences and the Academy of Medical Sciences in Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, and Armenia.
Theoretical developments in the field of aerodynamics S.A. Chaplygin, M.V. Keldysh, S.A. Khristianovich was allowed to develop and start production of new types of combat aircraft. The scientific team led by Academician A.F. Ioffe created the first Soviet radars. Since 1943, work began on the creation of nuclear weapons in the USSR.
Cultural figures - to the front. From the first days of the war, figures of national culture made a significant contribution to achieving victory. More than a thousand writers and poets went to the front, including M.A. Sholokhov, A.A. Fadeev, K.M. Simonov, A.T. Tvardovsky and many others. Every fourth of them did not return from the war. In the autumn of 1941, the children's writer A.P. Gaidar, was killed during the return from the besieged Sevastopol, one of the authors of the satirical novels "The Twelve Chairs" and "The Golden Calf" E. Petrov. In the Spandau prison in Berlin, the Tatar poet M. Jashil was tortured to death by the Germans, who was seriously wounded and taken prisoner. Ten writers were awarded the high title of Heroes of the Soviet Union.
The literature of the war period enjoyed great success and recognition, both at the front and behind enemy lines. The courage of the heroes - the blockade of Leningrad was sung in the "Leningrad Poem" by O. Berggolts and in the "Pulkovo Meridian" by V. Inber.
The feat of the defenders of Stalingrad was immortalized by K.M. Simonov and "The direction of the main blow" by V.S. Grossman. The steadfastness and courage of the defenders of the capital were glorified in A. Beck's story "Volokalamskoye Highway". The historical literature of the war period remained popular, reflecting the heroic pages of national history(“Bagration” by S. Golubov, “Port Arthur” by A. Stepanov and others). The image of Vasily Terkin, created in the poem of the same name by A.T. Tvardovsky.
Front-line theaters were created to go to the front line. The first such theater was the theater "Iskra", created from the actors of the Theater. Leningrad Komsomol. More than 40 thousand artists visited the front during the war years. Among them were outstanding artists I. Moskvin, M. Zharov, I. Ilyinsky, A. Tarasova, A. Yablochkina, M. Tsarev, N. Cherkasov, E. Gogoleva and others.
Despite the evacuation of the leading film studios to Central Asia, the domestic cinema did not stop its activities. Filmmakers during the war years produced about 500 newsreels and 34 full-length films. Especially popular were those that were dedicated to the fight against the enemy (“Two Soldiers” by L. Lukov, “Secretary of the District Committee” by I. Pyryev, “A Guy from Our City” by A. Stolper, “Invasion” by A. Room, etc.) .
The most favorite musical genre during the war years was the lyrical song. “Evening on the roadstead” by V. Solovyov-Sedogo, “ dark night” N. Bogoslovsky, “In the forest near the front” by M. Blanter, the whole country sang.
Symphonic music was also popular. In besieged Leningrad, D. Shostakovich wrote the Seventh (Leningrad) Symphony. Her first live broadcast from the besieged city was hailed as a display of civic courage around the world. In 1943, a new Anthem of the USSR was created (music by A.V. Aleksandrov, lyrics by S.V. Mikhalkov and G. El-Registan).
Front-line performances of pop artists had a special audience success. The most famous performers of lyrical songs were K. Shulzhenko, L. Ruslanova, R. Beibutov, M. Bernes.
If before the war Soviet culture helped people "build and live", now she helped them survive and win.
A radical turning point in the course of the war: the battles of Stalingrad and Kursk. On July 28, 1942, when the enemy was rushing towards Stalingrad and the Caucasus, Stalin issued Order No. 227: "Not a step back!" It talked about the heavy losses that the country is suffering, that the people are losing faith in the Red Army. Our main shortcoming, the order stressed, was the lack of discipline among the troops. Order No. 227 introduced harsh punishments for "retreat" sentiments. Commanders and commissars who allowed this were declared traitors to the Motherland, sent to penal battalions, and soldiers to penal companies. In the rear of the unstable divisions, well-armed barrage detachments (200 men each) were stationed, which were supposed to shoot all those retreating without orders. Nevertheless, the main idea of the order and, it is true, about the critical situation played their mobilizing role.
The battle for Stalingrad lasted from July 17, 1942 to February 2, 1943. The 6th Army under the command of General F. Paulus led the offensive from the enemy side. July 12 was created Stalingrad Front commanded by General V.N. Gordov. On the outskirts of Stalingrad, 4 defensive lines were built with a length of 3800 km.
On August 23, the Germans broke through to the Volga, Stalingrad was declared under martial law. Massive assaults on Leningrad began, up to 12 attacks were fought off per day. On October 15, the Germans captured the Tractor Plant area. Mamayev Kurgan changed hands several times. In early November, the Nazis managed to break through to the Volga for the third time in the area of the Barrikady plant. But this was the last success of the Germans. Their progress was halted. The city survived thanks to the will and heroism of the Soviet soldiers.
On November 19, 1942, the second stage of the war began, which was called the “radical turning point”. The General Staff, led by A.M. Vasilevsky, and the Deputy Supreme Commander-in-Chief G.K. Zhukov developed the offensive operation "Uranus". Two stages were envisaged in the operation: at the first, it was supposed to strike in decisive directions and encircle the German troops; on the second - to destroy the fascist troops encircled if they do not accept the ultimatum to surrender. By mid-November 1942, the superiority of the Soviet troops in guns, aircraft, and even earlier in tanks was achieved.
On the morning of November 19, after artillery preparation, the troops of the Southwestern and Don Fronts went on the offensive and advanced 35 km. On November 20, the Stalingrad Front went on the offensive. And on November 23, the troops of the Southwestern (General N.F. Vatutin) and Stalingrad (General A.I. Eremenko) fronts united in the area of the Kolach River. The 6th Army of General F. Paulus and the 4th Tank Army of General G. Goth were surrounded - a total of 22 divisions, 330 thousand people. But 80 thousand people managed to escape from the encirclement.
On December 12, 1942, the Don Army Group under the command of General E. Manstein went on the offensive in order to break through the encircled German troops capitulate, but Paulus refused. Hitler awarded him the rank of field marshal. On January 10, 1943, the troops of the Don Front under the command of K.K. Rokossovsky began the liquidation of the Nazi group. The rest of her surrendered on February 2. The battle of Stalingrad ended with the defeat of the enemy, who lost 1.5 million people, 2 thousand tanks, 3 thousand aircraft. 100 thousand soldiers, 2500 officers, 23 generals, Field Marshal F. Paulus were taken prisoner.
The victory at Stalingrad was a fundamental turning point in the course of the war. After Stalingrad, the Red Army increased its offensive power up to Berlin, the anti-Hitler coalition and the resistance movement in the occupied European countries strengthened.
After Battle of Stalingrad the offensive of the Transcaucasian Front began, and by the spring of 1943 a significant part of North Caucasus. In January 1943, the blockade of Leningrad was partially broken, trains with food and fuel entered the city (but the blockade was completely lifted only at the beginning of 1944).
The Nazi command hoped in the summer of 1943 to take revenge for the defeat at Stalingrad. Hitler signed a directive on carrying out on the Kursk salient offensive operation"Citadel". With powerful tank strikes, the Nazis wanted to break through the defenses of the Soviet troops, and then encircle the army of the Central and Voronezh fronts.
The Soviet command became aware that the Nazis would launch an offensive at dawn on July 5. Therefore, it was decided to inflict an affirmative artillery strike on the enemy. This delayed the German advance by 3 hours. On July 12, 1943, the largest tank battle in the history of the war took place near the village of Prokhorovka, with 1,200 tanks participating on both sides. In one day of battle, the Germans lost 400 tanks, but they could not break through our defenses. Offensive fascist troops failed, the defensive part of the Battle of Kursk ended.
July, 12 Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive along a front of 2 thousand km, the cities of Orel, Belgorod, and Kharkov were liberated. During the Battle of Kursk, 30 divisions were defeated, including 7 tank divisions. A radical turning point in the war was completed, conditions were created for the liberation of Ukraine and the exit of the Red Army to the Dnieper.
The final operations of the Great Patriotic War: Berlin and Prague. Capitulation of Germany. In the liberation of the countries of Central and South of Eastern Europe 8.5 million participated. Soviet soldiers. Even at the beginning of 1944 Soviet government declared that the main task of the Red Army was to defeat Nazi Germany, punish war criminals, and liberate the peoples of Europe from fascism. Unfortunately, in the 90s. many publications appeared in which, contrary to historical truth, it was stated. That the USSR occupied the countries of Eastern Europe. But the truth is that the Red Army carried out a liberation mission in relation to most countries. The territories of 10 European countries were completely or partially liberated, more than 1 million Soviet soldiers and officers died abroad, and the total losses, together with the wounded, amounted to over 3 million people. By the beginning of April 1945, almost all the occupied countries of Europe had been liberated. Germany lost all its allies. But Berlin was still ahead - the lair of fascism.
The Berlin operation began on April 16, 1945. At 5 o'clock in the morning, Soviet troops began artillery preparation. After a powerful 30-minute artillery shelling, 140 searchlights flashed at the signal of the rocket, illuminating and blinding the enemy. Infantry and tanks went forward. On April 18, the Seelow Heights were taken, and on April 20, long-range artillery opened fire on Berlin. April 24 Berlin was completely surrounded. April 25 advanced units of the 1st Ukrainian front met with American troops on the Elbe River near Torgau. On April 26, the fighting was already in Berlin, and on April 30, sergeants Yegorov and Kantaria hoisted the Banner of Victory over the Reichstag.
On May 2, 1945, the Berlin garrison capitulated. But there were still large German groups in Austria and Czechoslovakia. The tank units of the 1st Ukrainian Front, responding to calls for help from the insurgent Prague, liberated Prague on May 9-11. At midnight on May 8, 1945, an act of unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany was signed. The Day of the Great Victory has come!
The test of the Soviet man and society by war. Price and sources of victory Soviet army in the Great Patriotic War. The meaning, results and lessons of the victory over fascism and militaristic Japan.
During the Great Patriotic War, science made a significant contribution to the development of the defense potential of the USSR. In the second half of 1941, 76 research institutes were evacuated to the east of the country, which included 118 academicians, 182 corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and thousands of researchers. All scientific activity directed the presidium of the Academy of Sciences in Sverdlovsk. In this city in May 1942, at the general meeting of the academy, the tasks that confronted scientists in the conditions of war were discussed. The leading areas of scientific research were the development of military-technical problems, scientific assistance to industry, the mobilization of raw materials, for this purpose intersectoral commissions and committees were created. At the end of 1941, a commission was created to mobilize the resources of the Urals, which also oversees the reserves of Siberia and Kazakhstan. Academicians A.A. Baikov. I.P. Bardin, S.G. Strumilin, M.A. Pavlov and others. In close cooperation with practical engineers, scientists found methods for casting steel, high-speed melting of metal in open-hearth furnaces and achieved high quality.
Scientists A.P. Alexandrov, B.A. Gaev, A.R. Regel successfully solved the problem of mine protection of ships. In 1943, the technology for separating plutonium from irradiated uranium was developed. In the autumn of 1944, under the leadership of Academician I.V. Kurchatov, a version of the atomic bomb with a spherical explosion "inside" was created, and at the beginning of 1945 a plant for the production of weapons-grade plutonium was launched.
During these years, scientists of the USSR achieved significant success in the field of biology, medicine and agriculture. Scientists found new vegetable raw materials for industry, sought ways to increase the yield of food and industrial crops. So, in the eastern regions of the country, the cultivation of sugar beet was urgently mastered.
During this period, the activities of medical scientists were of great importance: academicians N.N. Burdenko, A.N. Bakuleva, L.A. Orbeli, A.I. Abrikosov, professors-surgeons S.S. Yudin and A.V. Vishnevsky, who introduced into practice new methods and means of treating sick and wounded soldiers. Doctor of Medical Sciences V.K. Modestov proposed the replacement of hygroscopic cellulose wool, introduced the use of turbine oil as the basis for the manufacture of ointments.
Creators of weapons and military equipment worked hard during the war years. Particular attention was paid to improving the quality artillery systems and mortars. In this area, great merit belongs to scientists and designers V.G. Grabin, I.I. Ivanov, M.Ya. Krupchatnikov, F.F. Petrov. B.I. Shavyrin and others.
The successes of small arms were achieved with the leading role of designers N.E. Berezina, S.V. Vladimirova, V.A. Degtyareva, S.G. Simonova, F.V. Tokareva, G.S. Shpagina, B.G. Spital. It should be noted that about half of all types of small arms and the vast majority of new models of artillery systems in service with the army in 1945 were created and put into series during the war. The calibers of tank and anti-tank artillery have almost doubled, and the armor penetration of shells has increased by about five times. During the war, the USSR began to surpass Germany in terms of the average annual production of field artillery by more than 2 times, mortars - 5 times, anti-tank guns - 2.6 times.
Through the efforts of Soviet tank builders, especially the workers and engineers of the Ural "Tankograd" Chelyabinsk, the enemy's advantage in armored vehicles was overcome relatively quickly. By 1943, the preponderance of the Soviet Armed Forces in tanks and self-propelled artillery mounts began to grow. Domestic tanks and self-propelled guns in terms of their combat characteristics significantly surpassed their foreign counterparts. A huge merit in their creation belonged to N.A. Astrov, N.L. Dukhov, Zh.Ya. Kotin, MI. Koshkin, V.V. Krylov, N.A. Kucherenko, A.A. Morozov, L.S. Troyanov and others.
Since the second half of 1942, the production of aircraft and aircraft engines has been steadily increasing. The Il-2 attack aircraft became the most massive aircraft of the Soviet Air Force. Most of the Soviet aircraft were superior in their characteristics to the aircraft of the German Air Force. During the war, 25 aircraft models (including modifications), as well as 23 types of aircraft engines, entered mass production. The following aircraft designers contributed to the creation and improvement of new combat vehicles: A.A. Arkhangelsky, M.I. Gurevich, S.V. Ilyushin, S.A. Lavochkin, A.I. Mikoyan, V.M. Myasishchev, V.M. Petlyakov, N.N. Polikarpov, P.O. Dry, A.N. Tupolev, A.S. Yakovlev, creators of aircraft engines V.Ya. Klimov, A.A. Mikulin, S.K. Tumansky, A.D. Swedes.
Education during the Great Patriotic War
A necessary condition for the successful development of the national economy of the country was the continuous training of new personnel in universities and technical schools. In 1941, the number of students decreased from 811.7 thousand to 460 thousand, admission to them was halved, the number of students decreased by 3.5 times, and the training period was 3-3.5 years. However, by the end of the war, the number of students, especially as a result of the increased enrollment of women, approached the pre-war level.
An important role in the development of pedagogy during the war years, the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, created in 1943, headed by Academician V.P. Potemkin.
Literature during the Great Patriotic War
With the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, the patriotic theme became the main trend in Soviet literature. In June 1941, poems by N.N. Aseeva, M.V. Isakovsky, A.A. Surkov, journalistic articles by A.N. Tolstoy, A.A. Fadeeva, M.A. Sholokhov and many other writers and poets. From June 27, 1941, in Moscow, and then in other cities, “TASS Windows” were hung out - agitation and political posters in order to quickly inform the public of the situation on the fronts and in the rear of the country. In their creation Active participation accepted by the poets A.A. Aduev, D. Bedny, S.I. Kirsanov, A.A. Zharov and others, graphic artists and cartoonists A.P. Bubnov, N.A. Dolgorukov, A.A. Radakov, M.M. Cheremnykh. In 1942, a production workshop "TASS Windows" was created at TASS under the guidance of artists N.F. Denisovsky and P.P. Sokolova-Skalya. In total, over 1200 TASS Windows were produced during the war years, which were also distributed abroad - in the USA, Sweden, India and other countries. The content of the TASS Windows was varied: information about the latest events at the front; calls for vigilance; to strengthen the front and rear; satirical pamphlets against the enemy, etc.
During the war years, many writers became war correspondents in national newspapers, on the radio, in the Soviet Information Bureau and TASS: V.V. Vishnevsky, B.L. Gorbatov, B.N. Polevoy, N.S. Tikhonov, V.S. Grossman, M.A. Sholokhov, A.A. Surkov, A.P. Gaidar, S.V. Mikhalkov and others. V.A. Zakrutkin, Yu.P. German, A.S. Levada, I.L. Andronikov, M.S. Lisyansky, S.P. Schipachev, N.K. Chukovsky and others.
For the first time, newspapers published works: “The Science of Hatred” by M.A. Sholokhov, "The people are immortal" V.S. Grossman, "Front" A.E. Korneichuk, "Vasily Terkin" by A.T. Tvardovsky, "Spring in the South" by B.L. Gorbatov and other works.
Essays and articles were preparatory stage to create stories, often combined into cycles: “Sea Soul” by L.S. Sobolev, "March - April" by V.M. Kozhevnikova, "Stories of Ivan Sudarev" A.N. Tolstoy. The protagonist of these cycles is a simple man, ready for a feat and accomplished it as a natural impulse of the soul.
The problem of the growth and masculinity of a soldier in battles was shown in the story by A.A. Beck "Volokolamsk Highway" (1943-1944). The exploits of Soviet people on the fronts and behind enemy lines were devoted to the novels of M.A. Sholokhov "They fought for the Motherland" and A.A. Fadeev "Young Guard" (1945)
The works of writers gained wide popularity during the war years. union republics: "Sacred Blood" by Aibek, "Shiganak" by G. Mustafin, "King of Pap" by S. Zoryan and others.
Importance poetry acquired during the war years. The songs “Holy War” by V.I. Lebedev-Kumach, "In the Frontline Forest" by M.V. Isakovsky, “The Bryansk Forest Sternly Noisy” by A.V. Sofonov and many other poets. Satirical works (fairy tales, parables, epigrams) by S.Ya. were distributed in the country and at the front. Marshak, S.V. Mikhalkov, D. Poor. Along with this, the lyrical poems of K.M. Simonova, S.P. Shchipacheva, M.I. Aliger, A.A. Akhmatova. During this period, the epic poem was also developed: “Kirov is with us” by N.S. Tikhonov, “Leningrad Poem” by O.F. Bergolts, "Zoya" M.I. Aliger and others. The works of A.A. Perventseva "Test", A.A. Karavaeva "Lights" and others.
During the war, the demand for historical literature. Among the works on the historical and military-historical theme, the following were especially famous: "Bagration" by S.N. Gorbatov, "Port Arthur" A.N. Stepanova, "Emelyan Pugachev" V.Ya. Shishkova and others. An important contribution to the spiritual development of the Soviet people was made by playwrights V.P. Stavsky (play "War"), K.A. Fedin ("Test"), L.M. Leonov ("Invasion") and others.
To mobilize the army and the people to fight the aggressor, to expose his propaganda, to corrupt the enemy, they were widely used leaflets. They were published by the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, the political bodies of the fronts, armies and divisions.
A necessary condition for the successful development of the national economy of the country was the continuous training of new personnel in universities and technical schools. In 1941, the number of universities decreased from 817,000 to 460,000, enrollment was halved, the number of students decreased by 3.5 times, and the duration of study was 33.5 years. By the end of the war, however, student numbers, especially as a result of the increased enrollment of women, approached pre-war levels.
During the Great Patriotic War, it was science that made a significant contribution to the development of the defense potential of the USSR. In the second half of 1941, 76 research institutes, which included 118 academicians, 182 corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, thousands of researchers. The leading areas of scientific research were the development of military-technical problems, scientific assistance to industry, and the mobilization of raw materials
In close cooperation with practical engineers, scientists have found methods for high-speed melting of metal in open-hearth furnaces, casting high-quality steel, and obtaining new standard rolled products. Thanks to geologists A.E. Fersman, K.I. Satpaev, V.A. Obruchev and others, new iron ore deposits in Kuzbass, new oil sources in Bashkiria, and a molybdenum ore deposit in Kazakhstan were explored.
The contribution of mathematicians P. S. Aleksandrov, S. N. Bernshtein, I. M. Vinogradov, N. I. Muskhelishvili was significant. Physicists A. F. Ioffe, S. I. Vavilov, P. L. Kapitsa, L. I. Mandelstam, chemists N. D. Zelinsky, I. V. Grebenshchikov, A. N. Nesmeyanov, A. E. Favorsky, N. N. Semenov. Scientists A.P. Aleksandrov, B/A. Gaev, A. R. Regel and others successfully solved the problem of mine protection of ships. A. F. Ioffe KAPITS Petr Leonidovich (1940s)
In the fall of 1944, under the leadership of Academician I. V. Kurchatov, a version of the atomic bomb with a spherical detonation inside was created, and in early 1945 a plutonium production plant was launched. Scientists of the USSR have achieved significant success in the field of biology, medicine and agriculture. They found new vegetable types of raw materials for industry, sought out ways to increase the yield of food and industrial crops.
The activities of medical scientists were of great importance: academicians N. N. Burdenko, A. N. Bakulev, L. A. Orbeli, A. I. Abrikosov, professors-surgeons S. S. Yudin and A. V. Vishnevsky and others, introduced into practice new methods and means of treating sick and wounded soldiers. Monuments medical workers who died during the Great Patriotic War ...
Designer P. Degtyarev During the war, the creators of weapons and military equipment worked fruitfully. Particular attention was paid to improving the quality of artillery systems and mortars. In this area, great merit belongs to the scientists and designers V. G. Grabin, I. I. Ivanov, M. Ya. Krupchatnikov, and others. Degtyareva, S. G. Simonova, F. V. Tokareva, G. S. Shpagina.
Since the second half of 1942, the production of aircraft and aircraft engines has been steadily increasing. The Il-2 attack aircraft became the most massive aircraft of the Soviet Air Force. Most of the Soviet combat aircraft outperformed the aircraft of the German Air Force. During the war, 25 aircraft models (including modifications), as well as 23 types of aircraft engines, entered mass production. Aircraft designers M. I. Gurevich, S. V. Ilyushin, S. A. Lavochkin, A. I. Mikoyan, V. M. Myasishchev, V. M. Petlyakov, N. N Polikarpov, P. O. Sukhoi, A. N. Tupolev, A; S. Yakovlev, creators of aircraft engines V. Ya. Klimov, A. A. Mikulin, S. K. Tumansky. S. V. Ilyushin, Medal "S. V. Ilyushin"
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