World War II was the most brutal and destructive conflict in human history. It was only during this war that nuclear weapons were used. 61 states became participants in the Second World War. It began on September 1, 1939 and ended on September 2, 1945.
The causes of the Second World War are quite diverse. But, above all, these are territorial disputes caused by the results of the First World War and a serious imbalance of power in the world. The Versailles Treaty of England, France and the United States, concluded on extremely unfavorable terms for the losing side (Turkey and Germany), led to a constant increase in tension in the world. But, the so-called policy of appeasing the aggressor, adopted by England and France in the 1030s, led to an increase in the military power of Germany and led to the start of active hostilities.
The anti-Hitler coalition included: the USSR, England, France, the USA, China (the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek), Yugoslavia, Greece, Mexico, and so on. On the side of Nazi Germany, Japan, Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Albania, Finland, China (Wang Jingwei's leadership), Iran, Finland and other states took part in World War II. Many powers, without taking part in active hostilities, helped with the supply of necessary medicines, food and other resources.
Here are the main stages of the Second World War, which researchers distinguish today.
- This bloody conflict began on September 1, 1939. Germany and its allies carried out the European blitzkrieg.
- The second stage of the war began on June 22, 1941 and lasted until mid-November of the following 1942. Germany attacks the USSR, but Barbarossa's plan fails.
- The next in the chronology of the Second World War was the period from the second half of November 1942 to the end of 1943. At this time, Germany is gradually losing the strategic initiative. At the Tehran Conference, in which Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill took part (end of 1943), a decision was made to open a second front.
- The fourth stage, which began at the end of 1943, ended with the capture of Berlin and the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany on May 9, 1945.
- The final stage of the war lasted from May 10, 1945 to September 2 of the same year. It was during this period that the United States used nuclear weapons. Military operations were conducted in the Far East and Southeast Asia.
The beginning of the Second World War of 1939-1945 took place on September 1. The Wehrmacht launched an unexpected large-scale aggression against Poland. France, England and some other states declared war on Germany. But, nevertheless, real help was not provided. By September 28, Poland was completely under German rule. On the same day, a peace treaty was signed between Germany and the USSR. Fascist Germany thus secured a fairly reliable rear. This made it possible to begin preparations for war with France. By June 22, 1940, France was invaded. Now nothing prevented Germany from starting serious preparations for military operations directed against the USSR. Even then, the plan for a lightning war against the USSR "Barbarossa" was approved.
It should be noted that in the USSR on the eve of the Second World War they received intelligence about the preparation of the invasion. But Stalin, believing that Hitler would not dare to attack so early, did not give the order to put the border units on alert.
The actions that unfolded between June 22, 1941 and May 9, 1945 are of particular importance. This period is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. Many of the most important battles and events of World War II unfolded on the territory of modern Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus.
By 1941, the USSR was a state with a rapidly developing industry, primarily heavy and defense. Much attention was also paid to science. Discipline in collective farms and in production was as strict as possible. A whole network of military schools and academies was created in order to replenish the ranks of the officer corps, more than 80% of which by that time had been repressed. But, these personnel could not receive full-fledged training in a short time.
For world and Russian history, the main battles of the Second World War are of great importance.
- September 30, 1941 - April 20, 1942 - the first victory of the Red Army - the Battle of Moscow.
- July 17, 1942 - February 2, 1943 - a radical turning point in the Great Patriotic War, the Battle of Stalingrad.
- July 5 - August 23, 1943 - Battle of Kursk. During this period, the largest tank battle of the Second World War took place - near Prokhorovka.
- April 25 - May 2, 1945 - the battle for Berlin and the subsequent surrender of Nazi Germany in World War II.
The events that had a serious impact on the course of the war took place not only on the fronts of the USSR. Thus, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 led to the US entry into the war. It is worth noting the landing in Normandy on June 6, 1944, after the opening of the second front and the use of nuclear weapons by the United States to attack Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
September 2, 1945 marked the end of World War II. After the Kwantung Army of Japan was defeated by the USSR, an act of surrender was signed. The battles and battles of World War II claimed at least 65 million lives. The greatest losses in the Second World War were suffered by the USSR, having taken the main blow of the Nazi army. At least 27 million citizens died. But, only the resistance of the Red Army made it possible to stop the powerful war machine of the Reich.
These terrible results of the Second World War could not but horrify the world. For the first time, war threatened the existence of human civilization. Many war criminals were punished during the Tokyo and Nuremberg trials. The ideology of fascism was condemned. In 1945, at a conference in Yalta, a decision was made to create the UN (United Nations Organization). The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the consequences of which are still felt today, eventually led to the signing of a number of pacts on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons.
The economic consequences of the Second World War are also obvious. In many countries of Western Europe, this war provoked a decline in the economic sphere. Their influence has declined, while the authority and influence of the United States has grown. The significance of the Second World War for the USSR is enormous. As a result, the Soviet Union significantly expanded its borders and strengthened the totalitarian system. Friendly communist regimes were established in many European countries.
A terrible war with large-scale human losses did not begin in 1939, but much earlier. As a result of the First World War in 1918, almost all European countries acquired new borders. Most were deprived of part of their historical territory, which led to small wars in conversation and in mind.
The new generation brought up hatred for enemies and resentment for the lost cities. There were reasons to resume the war. However, apart from psychological reasons, there were also important historical prerequisites. The Second World War, in short, involved the entire globe in hostilities.
Causes of the war
Scientists identify several main reasons for the outbreak of hostilities:Territorial disputes. The winners of the 1918 war, England and France, divided Europe with their allies at their own discretion. The collapse of the Russian Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire led to the emergence of 9 new states. The lack of clear boundaries gave rise to great controversy. The defeated countries wanted to return their borders, and the winners did not want to part with the annexed territories. All territorial issues in Europe have always been resolved with the help of weapons. It was impossible to avoid the start of a new war.
colonial disputes. The defeated countries were deprived of their colonies, which were a constant source of replenishment of the treasury. In the colonies themselves, the local population raised liberation uprisings with armed skirmishes.
rivalry between states. Germany after the defeat wanted revenge. It has always been the leading power in Europe, and after the war was largely limited.
Dictatorship. The dictatorial regime has grown considerably in many countries. The dictators of Europe first developed their army to suppress internal uprisings, and then to seize new territories.
The emergence of the USSR. The new power was not inferior to the might of the Russian Empire. It was a worthy competitor to the United States and leading European countries. They began to fear the emergence of communist movements.
The beginning of the war
Even before the signing of the Soviet-German agreement, Germany had planned an aggression against the Polish side. At the beginning of 1939, a decision was made, and on August 31, a directive was signed. State contradictions of the 30s led to the Second World War.The Germans did not recognize their defeat in 1918 and the Versailles agreements, which oppressed the interests of Russia and Germany. Power went to the Nazis, blocs of fascist states began to form, and large states did not have the strength to resist German aggression. Poland was the first on the way of Germany to world domination.
At night September 1, 1939 German secret services launched Operation Himmler. Dressed in Polish uniforms, they seized a radio station in the suburbs and called on the Poles to rise up against the Germans. Hitler announced aggression from the Polish side and began hostilities.
After 2 days, Germany declared war on England and France, which had previously concluded agreements with Poland on mutual assistance. They were supported by Canada, New Zealand, Australia, India and the countries of South Africa. The outbreak of the war became a world war. But Poland did not receive military and economic assistance from any of the supporting countries. If English and French troops were added to the Polish forces, then the German aggression would be instantly stopped.
The population of Poland rejoiced at the entry into the war of their allies and waited for support. However, time passed, and help did not come. The weak side of the Polish army was aviation.
Two German armies "South" and "North" consisting of 62 divisions opposed 6 Polish armies from 39 divisions. The Poles fought with dignity, but the numerical superiority of the Germans proved to be the decisive factor. In almost 2 weeks, almost the entire territory of Poland was occupied. The Curzon Line was formed.
The Polish government left for Romania. The defenders of Warsaw and the Brest Fortress went down in history thanks to their heroism. The Polish army lost its organizational integrity.
Stages of war
From September 1, 1939 to June 21, 1941 The first phase of World War II began. Characterizes the beginning of the war and the entry of the German military into Western Europe. On September 1, the Nazis attacked Poland. After 2 days, France and England declared war on Germany with their colonies and dominions.The Polish armed forces did not have time to turn around, the top leadership was weak, and the allied powers were in no hurry to help. The result was the complete cupping of Polish territory.
France and England until May next year did not change their foreign policy. They hoped that German aggression would be directed against the USSR.
In April 1940, the German army entered Denmark without warning and occupied its territory. Norway fell immediately after Denmark. At the same time, the German leadership was implementing the Gelb plan, it was decided to attack France unexpectedly through the neighboring Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. The French concentrated their forces on the Maginot Line, and not in the center of the country. Hitler attacked through the Ardennes behind the Maginot Line. On May 20, the Germans reached the English Channel, the Dutch and Belgian armies surrendered. In June, the French fleet was defeated, part of the army managed to evacuate to England.
The French army did not use all the possibilities of resistance. On June 10, the government left Paris, which was occupied by the Germans on June 14. After 8 days, the Compiegne Armistice was signed (June 22, 1940) - the French act of surrender.
Great Britain was to be next. There was a change of government. The US began to support the British.
In the spring of 1941, the Balkans were captured. On March 1, the Nazis appeared in Bulgaria, and on April 6 already in Greece and Yugoslavia. Western and Central Europe were dominated by Hitler. Preparations began for an attack on the Soviet Union.
From June 22, 1941 to November 18, 1942 the second phase of the war began. Germany invaded the territory of the USSR. A new stage began, characterized by the unification of all military forces in the world against fascism. Roosevelt and Churchill openly declared their support for the Soviet Union. On July 12, the USSR and England signed an agreement on common military operations. On August 2, the United States pledged to provide military and economic assistance to the Russian army. On August 14, England and the USA promulgated the Atlantic Charter, which was later joined by the USSR with its own opinion on military issues.
In September, Russian and British troops occupied Iran to prevent the formation of fascist bases in the East. The Anti-Hitler coalition is being created.
The German army met strong resistance in the autumn of 1941. The plan to capture Leningrad failed, as Sevastopol and Odessa resisted for a long time. On the eve of 1942, the "blitzkrieg" plan disappeared. Hitler was defeated near Moscow, and the myth of German invincibility was dispelled. Before Germany became the need for a protracted war.
In early December 1941, the Japanese military attacked a US base in the Pacific. Two powerful powers entered the war. The US declared war on Italy, Japan and Germany. Thanks to this, the anti-Hitler coalition strengthened. A number of mutual assistance agreements were concluded among the allied countries.
From November 19, 1942 to December 31, 1943 the third phase of the war began. It is called a turning point. The military operations of this period acquired a huge scale and intensity. Everything was decided on the Soviet-German front. On November 19, Russian troops launched a counteroffensive near Stalingrad. (Battle of Stalingrad July 17, 1942 - February 2, 1943). Their victory served as a strong stimulus for the following battles.
To return the strategic initiative, Hitler carried out an attack near Kursk in the summer of 1943 ( Battle of Kursk July 5, 1943 - August 23, 1943). He lost and went on the defensive. However, the allies of the Anti-Hitler coalition were in no hurry to fulfill their duties. They were waiting for the exhaustion of Germany and the USSR.
On July 25, the Italian fascist government was liquidated. The new head declared war on Hitler. The fascist bloc began to disintegrate.
Japan did not weaken the grouping on the Russian border. The United States replenished its military forces and launched successful offensives in the Pacific.
From January 1, 1944 to May 9, 1945 . The fascist army was driven out of the USSR, a second front was being created, the European countries were being liberated from the fascists. The joint efforts of the Anti-Fascist Coalition led to the complete collapse of the German army and the surrender of Germany. Great Britain and the United States conducted large-scale operations in Asia and the Pacific.
May 10, 1945 - September 2, 1945 . Armed operations are carried out in the Far East, as well as the territory of Southeast Asia. The US used nuclear weapons.
Great Patriotic War (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945).
World War II (September 1, 1939 - September 2, 1945).
The results of the war
The greatest losses fell on the Soviet Union, which took the brunt of the German army. 27 million people died. The resistance of the Red Army led to the defeat of the Reich.Military action could lead to the collapse of civilization. War criminals and fascist ideology were condemned at all world trials.
In 1945, a decision was signed in Yalta on the creation of the UN to prevent such actions.
The consequences of the use of nuclear weapons over Nagasaki and Hiroshima forced many countries to sign a pact banning the use of weapons mass destruction.
The countries of Western Europe have lost their economic dominance, which has passed to the United States.
The victory in the war allowed the USSR to expand its borders and strengthen the totalitarian regime. Some countries have become communist.
As a result of the first period of the war, the USSR succeeded in:
1) transfer the country's economy to military conditions (by 1942, the output of military products was increased compared to 1941);
2) stop the advance of the Nazis;
3) disrupt the plans of the Wehrmacht for a lightning war (blitzkrieg);
4) to pin down significant forces of the Nazis on the Soviet-German front, which facilitated the actions of the USA and Great Britain;
5) to raise the international significance of the USSR as a leader in the fight against fascism.
A radical turning point during the Great Patriotic and World War II in 1942–1943
Winter 1942-1943
By November 1942, the Wehrmacht deployed over 6 million people, or 71% of its forces, on the eastern front. They were opposed by about 6.6 million people. Main battle in the winter of 1942–1943
turned around for Stalingrad (July 17, 1942 - February 2, 1943). The fall of Stalingrad opened the way for the Nazis to the Caucasus and was a condition for Japan and Turkey to enter the war.
In November 1942, the Soviet army switched from defense to offensive and encircled the enemy. On February 2, 1943, Field Marshal Pauls capitulated. 91 thousand soldiers surrendered, 2.5
thousand officers, 24 generals. For 6 months Battle of Stalingrad 1.5 million enemy people were destroyed. The victory in the Battle of Stalingrad was the beginning of a radical turning point in the course of World War II. On February 3, the Nazis left the city of Rzhev, which they stubbornly defended for a year. On other fronts in the winter of 1942-43, they managed to advance 600 km, break through the blockade of Leningrad. To restore their losses in the winter campaign, the Wehrmacht transferred 34 divisions from Africa and Italy, which facilitated the actions of the Anglo-American troops.
2. Summer - autumn 1943
By the summer of 1943, 11 armies had been accumulated in the reserve of Soviet troops. Germany conducted a continuous mobilization of people in the occupied territories, increased the production of equipment. However, she was unable to achieve superiority over the Soviet troops. The main battle of the summer company unfolded on the Kursk Bulge. As a result of the winter offensive near the city of Kursk, a significant ledge formed in the front line. The Wehrmacht, as a revenge for Stalingrad, planned to encircle the Soviet troops, defeat the southwestern front and move to Moscow.
From July 5 to July 12, the battle on the Kursk Bulge unfolded. The peculiarity of this battle was active use the latest military technology. A grandiose tank battle took place near the village of Prokhorovka. On both sides, 1200 tanks participated in the battle, not counting other forces. After the defeat on the Kursk Bulge, the Wehrmacht lost its offensive initiative. The victory at the Kursk Bulge completed the turning point in the course of World War II. Developing success, on August 5, 1943, Soviet troops liberated the cities of Orel and Belgorod. In honor of this victory, an artillery salute was fired in Moscow. By December 1943, 50% of the occupied territory was liberated.
Partisan movement
The partisan movement was started from the first days of the war. By the decision of the Central Committee of the Party of July 18, 1941, the responsibility for organizing partisan detachments and the Soviet underground in the occupied territories was assigned to the leaders of local party organizations. Front commanders interacted with partisans and underground workers. A bright page in the partisan movement was written by the partisans who took refuge in the Kerch catacombs. In 1943, the partisans launched a rail war, which actually fettered the supply of the enemy. During the war, the partisans diverted 10% of the enemy forces.
International Position
The victory of the Soviet troops at Stalingrad and Kursk radically changed the situation on other fronts. The Wehrmacht lost dominance in the oceans and in the air. In May 1943, Anglo-American troops liberated Africa. On July 25, 1943, Italy capitulated. November 28th to December 1st
Tehran (Iran) hosted a meeting between Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill. The conference discussed the timing of the opening of a second front in Europe and the post-war structure of Europe.
The final stage of the Great Patriotic and World War II: 1944-1945. Sources and significance of the victory of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition
Liberation of the USSR
At the beginning of 1944, 6.5 million Soviet soldiers opposed 5 million invaders. The advantage in technique was 1: 5 - 10 in various forms. On January 27, the blockade of Leningrad was lifted, which lasted 900 days. In the spring of 1944, Crimea was liberated and Soviet troops reached the state border in the area of the Carpathian Mountains. By the summer of 1944 state border The USSR was completely restored. Military operations were transferred to the Baltic States and the countries of Eastern Europe. Finland, Romania and Bulgaria declared war on Germany, which meant the collapse of the Nazi military bloc. On June 6, 1944, Anglo-American troops landed in France, united with the French resistance and opened a second front in Europe.
Liberation of Europe
The European campaign of the Soviet troops displeased the United States and Great Britain. The development of these contradictions was devoted to the efforts of the intelligence agencies of the Wehrmacht. In September-October 1944, Churchill made a trip to the USA and the USSR in order to agree on the division of Europe into occupation zones. The United States did not support this initiative. Successfully developing the offensive and using the support of the local population, the Soviet army liberated the countries of Eastern and Central Europe. In January 1945, the fighting was transferred to the territory of Germany.
From February 4 to February 11, 1945, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill met in Yalta (Crimea). The conference discussed the plan for the defeat of Germany, the terms of its surrender and the post-war structure of Europe. At the conference, it was decided to create the United Nations (UN).
Fall of Berlin
In the first half of April, the operation to take Berlin began. The Nazis carefully fortified the city, mobilized 14-year-old children and the elderly into the army. On April 24, the city was surrounded, on April 25, Soviet troops joined forces with the Allied troops on the Elbe River. On April 29, the assault on the Reichstag (German Parliament) began, on May 1, Hitler committed suicide, on the night of May 8-9, the German government capitulated, on May 9, the German garrison in Prague surrendered. By May 11, all centers of resistance in Europe were destroyed.
Potsdam conference
From July 17 to August 2, a conference was held in Potsdam (Germany) with the participation of Stalin, Truman and Churchill. The Conference decided
occupation;
- transfer East Prussia (Kaliningrad region) to the USSR;
- judge the leaders of the Nazis as war criminals. During the conference, Truman (US President) announced the possession of nuclear weapons.
War with Japan
On August 9, the USSR declared the outbreak of war with Japan and began military operations in northern China. On August 6, the United States bombed the city of Hiroshima, and on August 9, Nagosaki. On September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered. This marked the end of World War II.
The results of the war
During the war, the dictatorial regimes in Germany, Italy and Japan were destroyed. Communists came to power in many countries, and the world socialist system began to take shape. During the war, 27 million Soviet citizens died, more than 50 million Europeans. In 1945-46, a trial of the leaders of the Nazi Party took place in Nuremberg (Germany). 24 people appeared before the international tribunal, of which 11 were sentenced to death
executions, the rest to various terms of imprisonment. The Nuremberg Tribunal banned the action of the National Socialist Party, and it was decided to search for war criminals who had escaped justice and put them on trial without a statute of limitations.
Reasons for the victory of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition:
- qualitative superiority of allied forces;
- assistance to the allies of the conquered peoples;
- the rapid economic development of the allies.
42Post-war development of the USSR (1945-1953). Cold War.
After the end of the war, many Soviet citizens counted on changes in the socio-political life of society. They stopped blindly trusting the ideological dogmas of Stalinist socialism. Hence the numerous rumors about the dissolution of collective farms, the permission of private production, etc., which actively circulated among the population in the first post-war years. Hence the growth of social activity of society, especially among young people.
However, it was pointless to count on the democratization of society under conditions of rigid authoritarian power. The authorities responded with repressions aimed primarily at the intelligentsia and youth. Starting point new series political processes was the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the magazines Zvezda and Leningrad” (August 1946). In the same year, several trials were held against "anti-Soviet" youth groups in Moscow, Chelyabinsk, Voronezh, and others. The most famous of the fabricated political cases of the period 1946-1953. - "Leningrad", "Mingrelian" and "case of poisoning doctors".
In addition to the political opposition, the Soviet government also had opponents with weapons in their hands. First of all, these are members of partisan detachments in Western Ukraine and the Baltic states, who fought against new government until the mid 50s. In addition, in the first post-war years, trials were held against members of the Russian Liberation Army, General A.A. Vlasov, as well as over Nazi war criminals and accomplices of the invaders. In addition to real traitors, thousands of innocent citizens were convicted, including former prisoners of war, prisoners of concentration camps. Actions continued to evict people to remote areas of the country on a national basis.
Despite the difficult economic situation in postwar period, the Soviet government paid considerable attention to development of science and education. In 1946–1950 spending on education increased 1.5 times, and on science - 2.5 times. At the same time, the emphasis was on those branches of science that worked for the needs of the military-industrial complex. In this area, design bureaus (“sharashki”) continued to function, in which imprisoned specialists worked; opens a number of research institutes. Together with the active work of foreign intelligence, this allowed the USSR to destroy the US monopoly on the possession of nuclear weapons by 1949.
At the same time, a difficult situation is developing in branches of science that are not directly related to the military industry. The heaviest blow falls on cybernetics and genetics, which were actually banned. The humanities, literature and art have been seriously affected by ideological diktat and pressure from the authorities. The decisive role in this was played by the campaign to combat “cosmopolitanism” launched after 1946. Under the slogan of opposition to the “reactionary policy of the West”, individual cultural figures (D. Shostakovich, A. Akhmatova, M. Zoshchenko, etc.), and entire creative teams (magazines Zvezda, Leningrad, etc.)
The term "cold war" is understood as the confrontation between the leading world systems - the capitalist, led by the United States and the socialist, led by the USSR, which began after World War II and ended with the collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1991. This confrontation repeatedly resulted in armed conflicts in various parts of the world and could lead to the start of the third world war. The term "détente" (which was first heard in G.M. Malenkov's speech in August 1953) means the easing of world tension and the desire to establish a lasting peace between the conflicting parties. Throughout the era cold war Such attempts have been repeatedly made with varying degrees of success.
During the first stage of the Cold War, tension along the East-West line was constantly growing, reaching its climax during the hostilities in Korea (1950-1953). At this time, the opponents were actively developing plans to destroy each other with the help of weapons of mass destruction, and then entered into an armed conflict in Asia. The United States supported South Korea, while the USSR and China supported North Korea. Some easing of tension that came after the armistice in Korea and the death of I.V. Stalin, made it possible to resolve a number of acute international issues, including the formation of an independent Republic of Austria (1955), as well as to hold several interstate conferences on issues of arms reduction. A powerful accelerator of the détente process was the so-called "Karibek" or "rocket" crisis of 1962, when the USSR and the USA were closer than ever to the beginning of nuclear war. Over the next few years, both sides took a series of measures to disarm and ban nuclear tests on land, sea and air.
After some deterioration in the international situation associated with the US war in Vietnam (1964-1973), the process of detente began to gain momentum again. In 1972, the US and the USSR signed a strategic arms limitation treaty (SALT-1). a number of other documents. In 1973–1976 the countries exchanged visits of leaders, carried out the joint space program "Soyuz-Apollo". The peak of detente was the holding of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and the signing in Helsinki in 1975 of the Final Act, which legitimized the post-war situation in Europe and the world.
The main reason for the next round of international tension was the introduction of Soviet troops into Afghanistan (1979). The period of constructive relations was replaced by a time of mutual accusations and the introduction of various restrictions on trade, scientific and cultural exchange between countries. Only with the coming to power in the USSR M.S. Gorbachev (1985), contacts were again established between the leading powers, a number of agreements on the reduction of armaments were signed. With the collapse of the socialist camp and its military force- The Warsaw Pact Organization - in 1991 the Cold War was ended.
43 N .FROM. Khrushchev. The period of "thaw" in the USSR.
1. Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev
After Stalin's death in March 1953, a struggle for power broke out between Malenkov, Beria and Khrushchev. All of them realized the need for reforms in the country, but saw the reforms themselves differently.
Malenkov advocated soft criticism of Stalin, the development of the consumer economy and the end of the Cold War. Beria advocated the continuation of Stalin's policy and the expansion of rights
republics and countries of the socialist camp. Khrushchev advocated the development of the rights of the bureaucracy. Khrushchev won in the struggle for power. From September 1958, Khrushchev combined the posts of First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and Chairman of the Council of Ministers.
2. Khrushchev's political reforms
Having come to power, Khrushchev carried out a number of political reforms:
- subordinated the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the KGB to local party bodies;
- stopped repressions, reviewed cases, rehabilitated prisoners, changed the Gulag system;
- At the XX Party Congress in February 1956, he made a report on Stalin's personality cult.
As a result of these reforms, he managed to remove Stalin's supporters from the party bureaucracy and to put his adherents in their place.
3. Khrushchev's economic reforms
BUT) Agriculture. Stalin's policy greatly strengthened heavy industry and ruined agriculture. Khrushchev decided to fortify the village. For this:
- taxes were reduced;
- increased financial support;
- the development of virgin lands in Northern Kazakhstan has begun.
B) industry.
Due to the construction of nuclear and large hydroelectric power plants, the capacity of the energy system of the USSR was increased, the electrification of the country was completed, and the sale of electricity abroad began. Enterprises began to re-equip with new equipment.
C) bureaucracy. Khrushchev began all reforms with a change in management systems. The aim of the reforms was to make the management system more efficient.
4. Consequences of Khrushchev's reforms
Khrushchev considered the main task of all the reforms carried out in the country to be the accelerated development of the economy in order to overtake the growth rate of the US economy. Due to incorrectly set tasks, methods were chosen incorrectly (the bureaucracy, whose position was very unstable, became the engine of reforms). Reforms were carried out in a hurry and did not have a clear organization. The bureaucracy was not financially interested in reforms and worked for the sake of reports. Therefore, all reforms were unsuccessful. As a result, by the mid-1960s:
- the crisis in agriculture deepened;
- a crisis began in industry; - the bureaucracy stopped supporting Khrushchev;
- Due to food shortages and the introduction of cards, unrest began in the country.
After the 20th Party Congress, the ideological pressure on art was eased, and many artists were rehabilitated. The writer Ilya Ehrenburg called the 60s "thaw". Rethinking Soviet history began long before the 20th Party Congress. The authors sought to realistically reflect the life Soviet society. Khrushchev understood that repressive methods could no longer silence writers. Trying to influence writers and artists, meetings with members of the government began to be practiced. The assessments expressed at such meetings became official and obligatory. These assessments marked the boundaries of permissible freedom. In the early 1960s, the works “Doctor Zhivago” by Boris Pasternak and “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by Alexander Solzhenitsyn were published in the West. For these publications, the authors were placed outside the Soviet law. The authorities tried in every possible way to prevent mass criticism of Stalin's policy, which saved their authority. As a result, by the end of the Thaw, Soviet art split into official and dissident art.
The science
In the 1960s, active research in the field of nuclear physics and space exploration continued. In 1957, the atomic icebreaker "Lenin" was launched, and the first artificial Earth satellite was launched. On April 12, 1961, the first space flight around the Earth by Yu.A. Gagarin.
After a long break, research in the field of genetics and genetic engineering has resumed. However, the government focused on the development of the military-industrial complex (MIC), where the main scientific and financial forces of the country were concentrated. Peaceful development program
atomic energy was ancillary to the program for the development of atomic weapons.
Education
In December 1958, a transition was made from compulsory seven-year education to eight-year education. Secondary education could be obtained either at school, or in the system of primary vocational education (SPTU), or in evening schools for working youth without separation
from production. Admission to the university depended on the length of service and the recommendation of the enterprise. The system of evening and correspondence higher education was expanded, but it was ineffective. Most university graduates sought to settle in large cities. Therefore, the system of distribution of graduates to enterprises with mandatory period working off.
44 Soviet Union in the late 1960s - early 1980s. period of stagnation.
The period from 1965 to 1985 was the most stable period of its existence Soviet Union. By this time, the achievement of the high level development of the socialist type economy. The absence of social upheavals, on the one hand, and the conservation of the main elements of the Soviet bureaucratic system, on the other hand, determined the nature of the era, which was later called "stagnant".
Demographic data confirm a certain rise in living standards in the USSR during the period under review. Thus, the average life expectancy rose to 70 years, the population of the country increased rapidly (from 240 million in 1970 to 280 million people in 1985). At the same time, the number of citizens increased from 136 to 180 million people. The per capita consumption of foodstuffs has also increased; for the first time, most people have the opportunity to purchase cars, household appliances for personal use, and join housing cooperatives.
At the same time, there were also crisis, negative moments. The acquisition of most types of goods and services was difficult due to their shortage. Quality items, especially imported ones, could not be purchased on open sale, this was done either by signing up in a queue, or through acquaintances, “by pull”. One of the reasons for this situation is the huge share of military articles in the state budget of the country (up to 70%). Most economy was a military-industrial complex, which required enormous expenditures. Agriculture was in a constant crisis, despite all the measures taken to support the collective farms. With a vast area of arable land, the Soviet Union was forced to buy grain abroad. The lack of interest in the results of one's work, equalizing wages at enterprises led to the stagnation of production and a reduction in growth rates. The development of the economy was extensive, the Soviet Union remained at the industrial level of development. The USSR more and more lagged behind the countries of the West, which entered a new, post-industrial era and focused on energy-saving technologies, high-tech industries, and an increase in the role of the educational sphere. It is also important to note that ensuring an acceptable standard of living for the population was achieved through the sale of the natural resources of the state, primarily raw materials. Favorable external economic environment – the rise in oil and gas prices on world markets – made it possible Soviet system with all the shortcomings of the planned socialist economy, to exist without major cataclysms until the second half of the 1980s.
45 USSR in the second half of the 1980s - 1991. "Perestroika" policy.
The growing crisis in the economy, including a sharp drop in the growth rate of national income, against the backdrop of the rapid development of Western countries, clearly set the state leadership the task of changing the existing order. The first attempts to get out of this situation were made after the death of L.I. Brezhnev (1982) who succeeded him General Secretary Central Committee of the CPSU Yu.V. Andropov. The former head of the KGB of the USSR tried to achieve an increase in labor productivity and the strengthening of discipline using the “crackdown” method. and Yu.V. Andropov and who replaced him in 1984 K.U. Chernenko were firm supporters of the established political system However, it was already clear at that time that cosmetic repairs the Soviet system, it is impossible to solve the problem of bringing the country out of the impasse.
Elected in March 1985 as the new General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev also did not immediately go for cardinal changes. At the first stage of "perestroika" (1985-1988), the main slogans of the country's development were the acceleration of production rates, the transparency of decisions made and the fight against the consumption of alcoholic beverages. At the same time, the state administration system remained unchanged - under the formal power of the Soviets of People's Deputies, all issues of the country's development were decided by the party apparatus of the CPSU Central Committee. Therefore, attempts to carry out reforms in the traditional Soviet way failed - an unshakable huge bureaucracy (18 million people) hampered positive undertakings. So, despite the adoption of progressive legislative acts on state enterprises and cooperation in 1987-1988, the nomenklatura continued to manage production, did not allow equality various forms property. In addition, an ill-conceived increase in wages unbalanced the national economy and led to a crisis in the financial system. The situation was aggravated by two emergencies: an accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant(1986) and the earthquake in Armenia (1988). All these factors have led to an increase in social tension in society. It became obvious that all attempts by M.S. Gorbachev and his entourage to build "humane, democratic socialism" within the existing system were doomed to failure.
SOCIO-POLITICAL STRUGGLE 1985–1991
The second stage of "perestroika" (1989-1991) was marked by an increase in socio-political tension in society. The central government was less and less able to control the processes taking place throughout the USSR Union, which quickly went beyond the framework proclaimed by M.S. Gorbachev "socialist renewal". During this period, there is a rapid strengthening of the role of leaders at the regional and republican levels, a "parade of sovereignties" and the disintegration of a single union state into 15 independent countries.
The first serious step taken by the leadership of the USSR to change the very system of state power was the introduction of amendments to the Constitution of the country. supreme body legislature was the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR elected on an alternative basis. The elections held in the spring of 1989 showed the existence of a heterogeneous opposition to the Communist Party in society. Wherein general requirements Both democrats and nationalists began to abandon the leading role of the CPSU, further democratization of society, and an increase in the standard of living of the people.
In the union republics (especially the Baltic ones), demands for secession from the USSR sounded louder and louder. Part of the republican communist parties withdrew from the CPSU, organizing independent parties of the social-democratic type. By 1990, a split also occurred within the CPSU - several ideological currents from liberals to Stalinists. It became obvious that in the context of the democratization of public life and the introduction of market elements communist party ceased to have a monopoly on power.
In this situation, the emerging social movements and political parties. The most important form political movement became "popular fronts" in the union republics. Created at first to support "socialist renewal", they rather quickly took a course towards achieving sovereignty and the proclamation of independent states. Among all-Union associations that declared themselves in 1989–1990, one should single out the Interregional Deputy Group, which stood up for market reforms and the creation of a democratic state. Its leaders (A.D. Sakharov, Yu.N. Afanasiev, G.Kh. Popov and others) gained national fame for their speeches at the Congresses of People's Deputies of the USSR (1989–1990). Of particular note is the role of B.N. Yeltsin at that time. He first loudly announced himself as a supporter of serious socio-economic reforms back in October 1987, when he was the First Secretary of the city committee of the CPSU. Criticizing the conservative forces in the Communist Party, he later became one of the leaders of the "Democratic Platform" in the CPSU and the Interregional Deputy Group.
Background and course of World War II
September 1, 1939 d. Germany attacked Poland. From that day, the Second World War began, which lasted until September 2, 1945 England and France declared war on Germany, but did not conduct serious hostilities, continued secret negotiations with the German leadership. At the first stage of World War II, the German invaders managed to occupy Belgium, Holland, Poland, Norway, Denmark, and France. France was defeated in May-June 1940. Austria and Czechoslovakia were occupied earlier. Italian fascists ruled in Albania, Greece, Ethiopia.
Neville Chamberlain, a supporter of the "appeasement" of Hitler, was replaced as Prime Minister of England by Winston Churchill, who understood that Hitler and fascism should not be appeased, but destroyed. The British, having taken refuge behind the English Channel and showing a real British character, heroically withstood the massive German bombardments in the summer and autumn of 1940. Churchill categorically rejected any kind of compromise with the Nazis.
The Soviet leadership took advantage of the situation. On September 17, 1939, Soviet troops occupied part of Poland, divided its territory with Germany in accordance with secret agreements. The territory of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus, lost after an unsuccessful Soviet-Polish war 1920, was returned to the USSR. The Treaty of Friendship and Borders with Germany was signed, by which Poland was again erased from the political map.
From November 30, 1939 to March 12, 1940 there was « winter» Soviet-Finnish war. At the cost of heavy losses, the Karelian Isthmus with Vyborg was returned to the country, a military base in Khanko and other territories were acquired. The USSR as an aggressor country was excluded from the League of Nations. In the summer of 1940, after the defeat of France by Germany, the pro-fascist governments in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were overthrown, new authorities were formed, asking to accept these states as part of the USSR. In the summer of 1940, Bessarabia, captured by the Romanians in December 1917, was returned to the USSR. April 1941 a non-aggression pact was signed.
On June 22, 1941, fascist Germany, without declaring war, violated the non-aggression pact, attacked the USSR.
The first period of the Great Patriotic War and the second period of the Second World War (June 22, 1941 - November 1942)
The war began catastrophically for the USSR. The fascist troops acted in accordance with the Barbarossa plan, seized the strategic initiative, and by the autumn of 1941 reached the Leningrad-Moscow-Kharkov line.
In the first week of fighting, the superiority of the German troops was 3-4 times, and in the directions of the main attack it reached 5-6 times. On a multi-kilometer front, it was possible to bring down the offensive impulse of the Wehrmacht. The heroic defenders of the Brest Fortress, Smolensk, Kyiv, Odessa, Sevastopol, Tula, Leningrad, Moscow fought hard.
During the Battle of Moscow on November 16, 1941, a group of tank destroyers from the 316th division (commander I.V. Panfilov) entered into battle with several dozen Nazi tanks. The call addressed to the fighters is “Russia is great, but there is nowhere to retreat - Moscow is behind!” - became the battle motto of the defenders of Moscow.
By July 1, 1941, mobilization ensured the conscription of 5.3 million people into the army. By decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, some categories of prisoners were released from punishment and sent to the front. Persons over 42 years old could voluntarily join the people's militia. In July-October 1941, 1.7 million people were accepted into the militia, of which 40 divisions were formed. 15 militia divisions subsequently went through the entire war until 1945. By November-December 1941, 6.6 million people fought in the army.
With the outbreak of war, the country was turned into a military camp. A grand evacuation people, equipment to the east, where military production was being established.
On December 5-6, 1941, near Moscow, Soviet troops won the first major victory, removed the threat of capturing the Soviet capital. During the Battle of Moscow, General G.K. Zhukov, having no superiority over the enemy in numbers and weapons, concentrated the available forces in the directions of the main attack. The risk was justified. The Germans were driven back from Moscow and suffered their first major defeat. Japan and Turkey refused to enter the war against the USSR.
In the first months of 1942, unsuccessful operations were carried out near Leningrad, in the Crimea and near Kharkov, after which the Germans were able to launch a new offensive in the southern direction. In the summer of 1942, the main struggle unfolded near Stalingrad and for the Caucasus. In the southwest and south, until the autumn of 1942, the superiority of the enemy forces in manpower and equipment remained. In aviation, the German armed forces had an absolute superiority of 3-4 times. The aviation units of the Red Army have not yet recovered from the losses suffered in the first weeks of the war.
In July 1942, Order No. 227 of the People's Commissar of Defense of the USSR Stalin was issued, which provided for severe measures aimed at strengthening order and discipline in the troops.
Even with the extremely unfavorable start of hostilities for the USSR, the mobilization capabilities of the “Soviet civilization” turned out to be sufficient not only to stop the enemy, but also to inflict serious blows on fascist Germany. Subsequently, "Soviet civilization" in all respects surpassed its immediate opponent.
The second stage of the Great Patriotic War and the third stage of the Second World War (November 19-20, 1942 - December 1943). A radical change in the course of the Great Patriotic and World War II
On November 19-20, 1942, the troops of the Red Army of the Southwestern, Stalingrad and Don fronts went on the offensive near Stalingrad. 22 enemy divisions were surrounded. In December, in stubborn battles, an attempt was made to free the encircled grouping. From January 31 to February 2, 1943, the troops of the 6th Army were defeated, and the remnants surrendered together with Field Marshal F. Paulus. More than 2 million people participated in the Battle of Stalingrad on both sides. The victory in the Battle of Stalingrad allowed the Soviet troops to seize the strategic initiative and created favorable conditions for launching an offensive on all fronts in a southwestern direction.
The outcome of the Battle of Stalingrad caused bewilderment and confusion in the Axis. A crisis of pro-fascist regimes began in Italy, Romania, Hungary, and Slovakia, whose military units suffered heavy losses near Stalingrad. The influence of Germany on its allies sharply weakened, and the differences between them became noticeably aggravated. In political circles in Turkey, the desire to maintain neutrality has intensified. In the attitude of the neutral countries towards Germany, elements of restraint and alienation began to prevail.
After the Battle of Stalingrad, the Nazi troops left the North Caucasus, retreated 600-700 km, lost up to 40% of their composition on the Soviet-German front.
In July-August 1943, during the grand battle of Kursk, large enemy tank forces were defeated. More than 4 million people participated in the Battle of Kursk. After the Battle of Kursk, the strategic initiative passed into the hands of the Soviet command. Since that time, Soviet troops have been mainly advancing, pushing the German army out of the territories it occupied.
During the summer-autumn of 1943, Smolensk, Kyiv with the left-bank Ukraine were liberated.
During the second stage of the Great Patriotic War, a radical turning point was marked in the armed confrontation between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany and its satellites.
The third period of the Great Patriotic War and the fourth period of the Second World War (January 1944 - May 9, 1945). The defeat and surrender of Nazi Germany
The Soviet troops continued to bear the brunt of the fight against Germany until complete surrender. On January 27, 1944, the blockade of Leningrad was finally lifted. Then major operations were carried out, in which significant military forces participated: Korsun-Shevchenkovsky, Belorussian, and others. During 1944, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Karelian Isthmus were completely liberated. Soviet army began to fulfill its liberation mission against the peoples of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Austria.
On June 6, 1944, British and American troops landed in France. From this major operation, according to the Soviet leadership, a real "second front" appeared. Before the Normandy landings, only a few German divisions fought against the British and Americans in North Africa, and then in Italy. Until the summer of 1944, almost all the forces of the Nazis were concentrated against the advancing units of the Red Army.
From April 16 to May 2, 1945, the Berlin operation took place, during which the capital of the Third Reich was surrounded and taken by storm. The Soviet flag was hoisted on the Reichstag building.
The Allies accepted the surrender from the representatives of the German command on May 6, but Stalin refused to join this action.
On May 6, 1945, the act of unconditional surrender of Germany was signed on behalf of the USSR by G. K. Zhukov, Deputy Supreme Commander, Marshal of the Soviet Union, an outstanding Soviet commander. This event was attended by representatives of the troops of England, the United States and France. May 9 was declared Victory Day in the USSR. The most difficult war in the history of our country ended with a great victory. On June 24, the Victory Parade took place on Red Square.
The fourth period of the Second World War (June-September 1945). The defeat and surrender of militaristic Japan
In April 1945, the Soviet government denounced the neutrality pact with Japan, signed in April 1941. Over the course of four years, the Japanese side repeatedly violated the terms of the pact. From the spring of 1941, the Japanese leadership made feverish efforts to ensure that the USSR remained neutral. The Japanese believed that they could still resist the Americans. The US leaders believed that even after the use of atomic weapons without the Soviet armed forces entering the war against Japan, the fight against Japan could drag on until the end of 1946 and even until 1947. On August 6, 1945, the United States subjected the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to atomic bombing, which killed mostly civilians.
- On August 1945, the Soviet Union, true to its obligations, entered the war against Japan. Within three weeks, the Manchurian strategic, Sakhalin tactical and Kuril landing operation. The Soviet army defeated large Japanese forces. In Northeast China, in Manchuria, almost the entire Kwantung Army was taken prisoner. Soviet troops South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands were liberated from the Japanese. September 2, 1945 G. The Japanese signed an unconditional surrender. World War II is over. The bloc of aggressive states, the core of which was fascist Germany, Italy and militaristic Japan, suffered a crushing defeat.
Results of World War II
The Second World War, planned by the aggressors as a series of small lightning wars, turned into a global armed conflict. 64 were drawn into the war. The losses incurred as a result of the war are striking in their scale. More than 50 million people died, and given the constantly updated data on the losses of the USSR, this figure cannot be called final. The economies of most of the warring countries were undermined.
Significance of the victory of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War. World War II ended with the defeat of German fascism and Japanese militarism. The Great Patriotic War became its most important integral part. The peoples of the Soviet Union defended their independence and, with the support of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, made a decisive contribution to the victory. England and the United States not only supplied our country with food, raw materials, materials and equipment, without which the level of Soviet production necessary for the needs of the war could not be maintained, but they also diverted a considerable part of the German fleet and aviation, and in the last war year - and land Wehrmacht forces.
The victory promoted the USSR to the ranks of the world's leading powers and raised its prestige in the international arena. Subsequently, the USSR took part and became a member of various international organizations, primarily the UN. The result of the post-war reorganization of the world was a new geopolitical situation based on a two-bloc confrontation - the United States and Western Europe against the USSR and Eastern Europe.
Early in the morning of September 1, 1939, two German armies - "North" and "South" - invaded Poland. On the same day, the Reichstag, to a furious ovation from the fascist deputies, passed a law on the annexation of Danzig to Germany. England and France, seeking to stop the further strengthening of Germany, which violated all the promises made to the West, on September 3, after two ultimatums to which there was no answer, declared war on Germany.
Poland, however, did not receive real help from England and France. Its bourgeois government, some month before, had refused the help of the USSR offered to it in case of war. As a result, the war went on with a great inequality of forces. 57 German divisions were opposed only by 31, tanks - cavalry, the Germans reigned supreme in the air. The Polish government not only did not organize resistance, but already on September 18 fled to Romania, leaving and betraying their country. Scattered, albeit stubborn battles were waged by individual military units and people in Gdynia, Poznan, Modlin Fortress; the main part of the army, poured with fire from the air, fought and died in pincers that closed around Warsaw. The defeat was already determined on September 17, and the last resistance was broken on October 1. “Poland collapsed like a house of cards,” wrote contemporaries. The reason for this "September catastrophe" was the reactionary, class policy of the Polish government and the ruling circles of Western countries.
In the circumstances, when the German armies, having occupied Poland, approached Soviet territory, he used the Soviet-German non-aggression pact of August 23, 1939 to strengthen his borders. Reunification of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus with Soviet Ukraine and Belarus; weakening as a result of the conflict of 1939-1940 and the conditions of the Moscow peace of the threat from Finland, which was increasingly turning into a Nazi foothold; the establishment of Soviet power in the three Baltic republics and their accession to the USSR; the reunification of Bessarabia - forcibly torn away from it back in 1918 - these were the actions Soviet government from September 1939 to March 1940, which strengthened his security and allowed him to get a respite before the German attack.
During all this time, England and France waged a "strange war". They did not take advantage of the opportunity to hit the rear of the German troops and did not conduct combat operations at all, with the exception of rare skirmishes. Preparations for military action were also sluggish. Propaganda spread the opinion that the Germans would not attack, the war would never take place. However, all attempts by the Western powers to continue the Munich course of collusion with were doomed to failure: Hitler was not at all going to agree to an agreement, and "appeasement" only led to new disasters.
Lightning surrender. "New Order" in Europe
On April 9, 1940, Germany, turning its armies to the west, suddenly attacked Denmark and Norway and thereby put an end to " strange war". Aware of the limitations of his resources, Hitler set as his goal the achievement of "lightning victories", and this tactic was successful. Denmark was occupied in 2-3 days with almost no resistance - the inhabitants of Copenhagen even took the march of the invaders through the streets of the capital for filming. Norway, which was trying to resist in the north of the country, where the British troops landed, capitulated by May 1.
Almost without respite, the Nazi troops delivered subsequent blows: on May 9-10, the invasion of France, Luxembourg, Holland and Belgium began. Luxembourg was occupied without resistance, Holland was subjected to the most severe bombardments and surrendered on May 14, Belgium, having lost a major battle for Flanders, capitulated on May 28, 1940.
How to explain such a rapid fall of all these states?
Surprise, superiority in technology, the superiority of German tactics - all this played a role. But the decisive factor was the position of the ruling circles. A significant part of them took the path of direct betrayal, collaborationism (cooperation with the enemy). So, for example, the Minister of War of Norway, Quisling, turned out to be a German agent (hence the synonym for the word "traitors" - "quislings").
Hesitation, lack of unity, fear of their own people, unpreparedness, unwillingness of the big powers to wage war in earnest - all this was the result of the narrow class position of the bourgeoisie and the main reason for the "lightning capitulation". Gradually, the fatality of such a course began to be realized in the ruling circles. So, who headed the government of England in May 1940, despite his conservative views, he began vigorous measures to defend the country. But the very next operation - the defeat of France in May - June 1940 - showed that the former capitulatory policy still prevailed in the bourgeois elite.
With a swift blow, the Germans made a "cut with a sickle" - they went to Dunkirk, separating the British forces from the French army and throwing them into the sea. The British evacuated, losing all their equipment and suffering heavy casualties. They were expelled from the continent, Dunkirk was one of their biggest defeats. Then the Germans broke through to Paris. The French government fled to the city of Tours. A panicky stream of refugees followed him - up to 10 million people moved south. Deprived of leadership, the army fell apart before our eyes. Already 9 days after the start of the offensive, German troops occupied Paris, declared an open city.
After a fierce discussion in the government, during which the right intimidated that in the event of resistance and mobilization of the people, the Communists would come to power, the elderly Marshal Petain became the head of the cabinet, who decided to surrender the country. He addressed by radio to the population and the army demanding to lay down their arms. On June 2, 1940, an armistice was signed with the Nazis.
According to the terms of the armistice, France was divided into two zones - the northern one, occupied by the Germans, and the less developed southern zone, centered on the resort town of Vichy, where the allegedly independent, but in fact the puppet government of the "gravedigger of France" Petain remained.
Other consequences of the armistice were complete disarmament, a huge indemnity, theft work force to Germany, a regime of brutal repression, the complete domination of the Nazis and collaborators.
True, in the ruling circles of France there were sincere patriots who did not want to put up with defeat, at the head of which stood the general. In the days of the fall of France, he flew to London, then formed the Fighting France Committee there and began to form an army. However, there was still a long way to go before these forces could participate in military operations. The rebuff to the invaders in the country was led by the Communist Party, which called for resistance already on June 24, 1940, and began to raise the democratic forces of the nation to fight.
"New order"
The defeat of France allowed Hitler to conduct massive air raids on England (the so-called "Battle of England" in the autumn of 1940), as well as to continue the lightning war - now in the east of Europe. Helping Italy, which hastened to take advantage of the defeat of France to enter the war (June 1940), Germany invaded Greece (the war in Greece lasted from October 1940 - until May 1941); occupied Yugoslavia (April 1941). In September 1940, an open alliance between Germany, Italy and Japan was formalized by the signing of a military pact.
By the end of the first stage of the war (1939-1941), the so-called "new order" was established in Europe. It was characterized by the complete sole domination of "Great Germany", the loss of independence by the countries of the continent, some of which were directly occupied by the Nazis, some were turned into puppet states (Slovakia, Croatia, the "Vichy state", Serbia, Montenegro), and others - into satellites (Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Finland) and dependent "neutrals" (Sweden, Spain), or junior partners (Italy).
The robbery of Europe in favor of the German military machine, the seizure of raw materials, enterprises, etc. by the German monopolies took on enormous proportions, which led to the impoverishment and starvation of the population of the occupied countries. But the most characteristic feature of the "new order" was bloody political terror. Europe was covered with gallows and concentration camps. The humiliation of human dignity, the desecration of national culture, the physical extermination of millions of people, atrocities and sadistic torture - German imperialism appeared in such a disgusting guise.
War in Africa and Asia. Results of the first stage of the war
Already at the first stage, the war spread to Africa. Italy, having entered the war, launched an invasion of the colonies of England - Kenya, British Somalia, Sudan, and also moved armies from its colony of Libya to Egypt. Although the British counteroffensive had some success, and the people of Ethiopia, taking up arms, expelled the invaders from their country (April 1941), the main threat - Egypt and the Suez Canal - was not removed by the end of the stage. The Germans sent help to the Italians - the troops of the general and, having lowered an entire army from the air, occupied the island of Crete, which allowed the German-Italian fleet to largely control the Mediterranean Sea. Japan also took advantage of the defeats of Western states. She occupied French Indochina and prepared to attack Indonesia.
By the end of the period, the position of the Western powers was difficult. The fascist bloc was advancing everywhere. The US was out of the war. However, if the governments capitulated, being unable to protect the interests of their countries, then the masses of the people began to rise to the struggle, dragging with them part of the bourgeois ruling circles.
As a result, the nature of the war began to change. It became more and more popular, anti-fascist and fair on the part of the countries fighting against Nazi Germany. However, the real salvation and the final change in the nature of the war came with the entry into the struggle of the Soviet Union.
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