a) - The Russian kingdom did not want to allow the formation of a Polish-Swedish union,
The Russian kingdom wanted to return to the Gulf of Finland and gain access to the Baltic Sea
b) 1656 - three directions: Riga, capture of Dinaburg, capture of Kokenhausen, siege of Riga, Ingria (capture of the Neva).
1657 - Swedish counter-offensive
1658 – Russian counter-offensive
c) The war ended with a Russian victory.
d) The Vilna Truce was concluded with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which Khmelnitsky perceived negatively. This determined further actions Khmelnitsky against Poland.
war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1654-1667.
a) - Russia wanted to return the territories that it lost during the Time of Troubles
Russia wanted to control Belarus and Ukraine again
Russia supported Khmelnitsky
b) 1654 - The Sovereign's campaign - the hetman and royal forces united and went to Smolensk
1656 - Russia declares war on Sweden,
1657 - death of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Ivan Vygovsky becomes hetman of Zaporozhye.
1661-1662 – northern theater of war: the Battle of Kushliki, the loss of Mogilev; In Russia there is an economic crisis, a copper riot, and the Bashkir uprising.
1663-1664 – campaign of King John Casimir
c) conclusion of the Truce of Andrusovo: Russia receives Smolensk, lands during the Time of Troubles, Nevel, Velizh, Severnaya Zemlya and others, and Poland recognizes Russia’s right to Left Bank Little Russia, Kyiv passed to Moscow for 2 years, and Zaporozhye is common.
d) As a result of the war, Poland was greatly weakened, then 3 partitions of Poland followed.
Russian-Swedish war 1656-1661.
a) – Russia wanted to return the lands that it lost under the Stolbovo Treaty (Ivangorod, Ostrov, Oreshek, Korela, Ingria, Koporye)
Russia wanted to stop the influence of the Swedes in Poland
Denmark wanted to take revenge for the war of 1643-1645 with Sweden
b) 1656 – fighting in Livonia, Estland, Ingria – capture of Dinaburg and other cities (about them above)
1657 - Swedish invasion of Pskov
1658 – capture of Yamburg and Narva by Russians
1661 – signing of the Peace of Kardis
c) Kardis Peace - Russia was left without access to the Baltic, returned the Baltic, left an “indemnity”, but received the right to trading yards in Stockholm, Riga, Revel, Narva, and the Swedes - in Moscow, Pskov, Pereyaslavl, Novgorod.
d) Russia was able to continue the war with Poland, and access to the Baltic would be obtained in the Northern War.
Russian-Turkish war 1676-1681.
a) – The Ottoman Empire wanted to intervene in the confrontation between Russia and Poland and get Right Bank Ukraine
Hetman of Right Bank Ukraine Doroshenko became an Ottoman vassal
b) 1673 – Trubetskoy’s army in Kyiv, attack on the Belgorod line, Koltsov-Mosalsky’s troops on the Don and the blockade of Azov,
1673 – Tatar raid, Peace of Zhuraven
c) conclusion of the Bakhchisarai Peace Treaty: 20 years of peace, the border between Russia and the Ottoman Empire along the Dnieper, no one can build new cities, Kyiv remains in Russia, Russia pays tribute to the Crimean Khan, the Zaporozhye Sich becomes independent.
d) The Ottoman Empire carried out a brutal policy, forced them to convert to Islam, and lost all support
The most important task of foreign policy in the reign. Alexei Mikhailovich was the return of the Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk lands lost during the Time of Troubles and intervention. Solving this problem has become more complicated due to the struggle of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples for reunification with Russia.
According to the Union of Lublin (1569), which united Poland and Lithuania into a single state, Belarus and most of Ukraine. The Polish gentry rushed to these vast and fertile lands, who received land holdings and profitable positions here. Serfdom in Poland took shape back in 1557 and then spread to the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. The Catholic clergy set as its goal the integration of the Orthodox population into the Catholic Church. The means to this was the union concluded in 1596 in Brest between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, under which the Western Russian Church retained its rituals and customs, but recognized Catholic dogmas and the authority of the Pope. Part of the clergy and a huge number of laity refused to accept the union. As a result, there is a double church hierarchy: along with the Uniate one, an Orthodox metropolitanate was created. Direct persecution of Orthodoxy began. Western Russian lands became the arena of the population's struggle against oppression by the Polish gentry.
The Zaporozhye Sich, inhabited by the Dnieper Cossacks, became the main center of the struggle. Just as from Muscovite Rus' a “free” road led to the Don, so from Rus', subject to Poland, such a road led to the steppes of the Lower Dnieper. Many brave and freedom-loving Cossacks flocked here and built fortifications for themselves on the islands of the Lower Dnieper. The local free Cossacks have long had their own harsh but democratic military organization with the election of atamans, the resolution of issues of war and peace by the entire Cossack “circle” and defending the southern borders from the Crimean Khanate. From the end of the 16th century. An almost continuous series of Cossack uprisings against Poland began. The Polish government tried to organize the Ukrainian Cossacks and attract them to their service. In the Kyiv region, an army of “registered” (listed) Cossacks was formed, who, however, went over to the side of the rebellious Cossacks and turned their weapons against the Poles.
A series of Cossack riots, brutally suppressed by the Polish government, ended in 1648 with a successful uprising led by the famous head of the Zaporizhian army, Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky. According to the Peace of Zborov (1649) with the Poles, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth recognized Khmelnytsky as hetman of Ukraine, three voivodeships came under his autonomous rule - Kiev, Chernihiv and Bratslav, where the deployment of Polish troops was prohibited. The number of the hetman's registered troops was 40 thousand people. However, the conditions of the Peace of Zborov turned out to be unenforceable for both sides, and in 1651 the war resumed. According to the new Belotserkovsky Treaty, unfavorable for the Western Russian population, the number of registered Cossacks was reduced to 20 thousand, and the hetman was to be under the authority of the crown hetman and had no right of foreign relations. Only the Kiev Voivodeship remained under his rule.
B. Khmelnitsky turned to the Moscow Tsar with a request to accept the Zaporozhye army and all of Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar. The Zemsky Sobor, convened in Moscow in 1653, decided to provide assistance to the hetman. War was declared on Poland. Moscow troops took Smolensk and occupied all of Belarus and Lithuania, including Vilna. At the Pereyaslav Rada (council) in 1654, Ukraine decided to join Russian state, which recognized the election of the hetman, the local court and other authorities that arose during the war. Russia confirmed the class rights of the Ukrainian nobility. Ukraine received the right to establish diplomatic relations with all countries except Poland and Turkey, and to have registered troops of up to 60 thousand people. Taxes were supposed to go to the royal treasury. Thanks to the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, it was possible to return the Smolensk and Chernigov lands lost during the Time of Troubles.
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth did not recognize the decisions of the Pereyaslav Rada and waged war with Russia (1654-1667). Exhausting and protracted, it ended in 1667 with the conclusion of the Truce of Andrusovo for 13.5 years. Russia abandoned Belarus, but retained Smolensk and Left Bank Ukraine with Kiev.
The largest foreign policy event was the war with Turkey (1677-1681), which declared its claims to Left Bank Ukraine. It ended with the Peace of Bakhchisarai, which established that the Dnieper serves as the border between Russia and Turkey, and the affiliation of Kyiv with Russia was confirmed.
At this time, Austria and Poland, realizing the strengthening of the Ottoman Empire, created the Holy League under the patronage of the Pope, in which all Christian countries, including Russia, were supposed to participate. Being an outstanding diplomat and statesman, V.V. Golitsyn used his entry into the League to quickly sign the “Eternal Peace” with Poland (1686) on the terms of the Truce of Andrusovo and significant territorial concessions on its part. Under his command, the Russian army undertook two unsuccessful campaign against the Crimean Khanate (1687, 1689), which was in vassal dependence on Turkey. The campaigns did not bring Russia any territorial gains, and their result showed that the country was not yet ready to defeat a strong enemy. Nevertheless, the main task of the Holy League was completed: Russian troops distracted the forces of the Crimean Khan, who did not side with the Turks in the battles with the Austrians and Venetians.
In Russian foreign policy in the 17th century. was three main directions: northwestern, western and southern. For the northwestern direction, Russian-Swedish relations were decisive, Russia’s goal in which was the return of Russian lands, access to the Baltic Sea, taken away by Sweden first during the Livonian War, and then in the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617.
In the 17th century. foreign policy Russia was, perhaps, in this direction least active. Only once did the government of Alexei Mikhailovich try to take revenge in the north-west during the Russian-Swedish war of 1656-1661.
During the Russian war with With the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden decided to seize part of the Polish lands in the Baltic and realize the long-standing dream of turning the Baltic Sea into a “Swedish lake”. Such a strengthening of the positions of the ancient enemy did not suit Russia at all, and without finishing the war with Poland, in May 1656 she declared war on Sweden.
Military operations initially developed successfully for Russia. Russian troops captured a number of important fortresses in the Baltic states and besieged Riga. But then the Swedes seized the initiative, and the siege of Riga had to be lifted.
In parallel with military operations Russian diplomacy also intensified. Three months after the start of the war with Sweden, Russia began negotiations on a truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This action could have become a major foreign policy success, since the negotiations also discussed the conclusion of an anti-Swedish military alliance. If the negotiations had been successful, Russia would not only have avoided a war on two fronts, not only would have acquired an ally in the war with Sweden and, therefore, would have had a real chance of ousting the Swedes in the Baltic states, but would also have secured the Ukrainian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Unfortunately, this was not achieved. The government of Alexei Mikhailovich and Russian diplomats made a number of miscalculations, did not take into account the specific situation and, as a result, achieved only a truce, which did not last very long.
At the same time, Russian diplomats tried to find more allies from among the countries that were not satisfied with the strengthening of Sweden. Such a country, besides the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was Denmark. As a result of lengthy negotiations, a Russian-Danish military alliance, and Denmark also declared war on Sweden. (Because of this alliance, some historians call the Russian-Swedish war of 1656-1661 the first Northern War, meaning that in 1700-1721 there was a second Northern War, in which Denmark fought with the Swedes on the side of Russia, however, together with two other states.)
While Russia was at war with Sweden The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage of the truce, accumulated forces and again began military operations. Faced with the threat of a war on two fronts, Russia hastened to end the war with Sweden and in December 1658 concluded a truce for three years. Its conditions were quite favorable: the entire territory captured by Russian troops went to Russia. But during the truce the balance of power changed dramatically. There was a rapprochement between yesterday's enemies - Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in the face of the emerging anti-Russian alliance of these countries, Russia was forced to sign the Peace of Kardis in 1661. Under the terms of this agreement, all territorial acquisitions of Russia again went to Sweden.
The pivot of the western direction Russian foreign policy was relations with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. These relations remained unsettled after the Time of Troubles: the war ended not in peace, but in a truce, under the terms of which the Western Russian lands remained with the Polish-Lithuanian state, and Prince Vladislav did not renounce his claims to the Russian throne. Therefore, the main task of Russia in this direction was first to return the seized territories and recognize Mikhail Fedorovich as the Russian Tsar, and then a new task appeared - to consolidate the part of Ukraine annexed to Russia.
IN 1632 King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund III died. In the Polish-Lithuanian state was not hereditary royal power : the king was elected by the gentry. Therefore, after the death of almost every king, the period of the so-called " queenless", when the country was often torn apart by clashes between various political groups, each of which supported its own candidate for the throne. It was precisely this period that the Russian government decided to take advantage of, enlisting the support of a specially convened Zemsky Sobor (the actual head of which at that time was Patriarch Filaret). Russia announced Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth war, which went down in history as Smolensk War (1632-1634).
Near Smolensk, captured by the Poles During the Time of Troubles, a 30,000-strong army with a huge 150 guns artillery was sent. It was commanded by the hero of the defense of Smolensk in the Time of Troubles, the famous Russian commander of the 17th century. Mikhail Borisovich Shein. At first, military success accompanied him. More than two dozen cities were captured by Russian troops, and finally, Shein’s army besieged the main goal of the campaign - the strongest Smolensk fortress.
The siege lasted eight months, but it was never possible to take Smolensk. Firstly, in the summer of 1633, the Crimean Tatars made a large-scale raid, reaching the center of the country - the Moscow district. The need to organize a rebuff to the khan, on the one hand, did not allow the government to send reinforcements to Shein, and on the other hand, mass desertion began in the regiments near Smolensk among those service people whose estates and estates were located in the south of the country and, therefore, were subject to the Tatar raid. Secondly, among the so-called " dating people", recruited into the army from serfs, peasants and townspeople, riots and mass escapes from the regiments began.
Meanwhile, the situation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has also changed. Prince Vladislav was elected to the throne, who immediately began preparing to repel the Russian troops. Vladislav managed to encircle Shein’s army near Smolensk and cut off the supply of food and fodder: the besiegers themselves turned into besieged.
Holding out until February 1634., Shein capitulated. The conditions of surrender were difficult and humiliating: the Poles got all the artillery, banners and convoys. In Moscow they could not forgive Shein for such humiliation, and according to the boyar verdict he was beheaded.
IN June 1634. The Peace of Polyanovsky was concluded, which ended the Smolensk War. Everything that Sheina managed to capture at the beginning of the campaign was returned to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia paid a large indemnity, and the only achievement was that Vladislav finally abandoned his long-standing claims to the Moscow throne.
The next increase in Russian activity in the western direction occurred two decades later. Since the late 40s. XVII century The anti-Polish liberation movement of Bohdan Khmelnytsky began in the Ukrainian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This was a convenient moment for revenge for the numerous failures in the western direction of Russian foreign policy. Moreover, it was possible to include into Russia the territory that was once the cradle of Russian statehood. Bohdan Khmelnytsky, elected hetman of Ukraine, realizing the impossibility of standing alone against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, addressed Moscow more than once with a request to accept Ukraine "under high hand"Russian Tsar. In 1653, the Zemsky Sobor decided to incorporate Ukraine into the Russian state. This decision was not as simple as it might seem at first glance, since it meant a big war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In May 1654. huge 100 thousandth Russian army moved west. The main hostilities were to take place on the Belarusian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Auxiliary detachments were sent to Ukraine to Khmelnitsky and to the southwest of Russia to protect the left flank of the active army from a possible attack by the Crimean Tatars. This was an account of the sad experience of the Smolensk War. In addition, unlike the 30s. In the 17th century, southern Russian districts were now protected from the Khan’s raids by powerful defensive lines with dozens of new fortified cities. The Don Cossacks also received orders to defend the southern borders of the country from the Crimeans.
Russian-Polish War 1654-1667. began (as, indeed, many previous wars in the western direction) very successfully. More than 30 cities, including such large fortresses as Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, were captured by Russian troops on the Belarusian territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. But in 1655 g. Sweden also started a war with Poland. Swedish troops captured a huge part of the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian state, and this pushed the Russian government to war with Sweden. Moscow was convinced that Poland had already been bled dry and, facing the threat of a war on two fronts (with Russia and Sweden), would agree to conclude peace on terms favorable to Russia.
Peace talks have begun in August 1656, and the main demand of the Russian side was to secure all conquered territories for Russia. However, the Poles did not agree to this, and the Russians, who had already started a war with Sweden, had to hurry, and in October 1656. peace was not concluded, but only a truce. We will probably not be mistaken in calling the start of military operations against Sweden during the still ongoing Russian-Polish war, as well as the conclusion of a truce, which did not secure the occupied lands for Russia, as serious mistakes of the Moscow government and Russian diplomacy. And soon they had to pay for these mistakes.
The war with Sweden ended in nothing. And the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, having accumulated strength during the truce, again began military operations. At this second stage, the Russian-Polish war went on for a long time with varying success, but military happiness in battles more and more often leaned towards the side of the Poles and Lithuanians.
The protracted war was exhausting and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, so it is not surprising that already since 1661. peace negotiations began. But they also took on a protracted character: they either resumed or stopped, and neither side made concessions. Finally, a compromise was found, and in January 1667. war is over, but again not by peace, and the Andrusovo truce. It was concluded for thirteen and a half years, Smolensk and Chernigov lands were returned to Russia, Russia received Left Bank Ukraine; Kyiv, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was also transferred to Russia, but only for two years, and then it had to be returned to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (this last condition was never met - since 1667 Kyiv became a Russian city).
Russian-Polish War 1654-1667. was the last in a long chain of military clashes between the two states. In the 70-80s. XVII century. The onslaught of the Ottoman Empire intensified in the direction of its northern neighbors - Russia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria. Moreover, if the Crimean Tatars usually attacked the Russian borders, the Poles and Austrians had to deal with both them and the powerful Turkish army. In such conditions, Russian-Polish contradictions receded into the background: the situation and the common formidable enemy pushed these countries towards rapprochement.
In May 1686. an “eternal peace” was concluded between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which secured for Russia everything that it received under the Truce of Andrusovo (and Kyiv too), and Russia took upon itself the obligation to start a war with Turkey. Thus, in 1686. In essence, a Russian-Polish military alliance arose. (In the future, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth will first turn from an equal ally into a junior partner, then Russia will begin to actively interfere in the internal affairs of Poland, and, finally, during the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the end of the 18th century, which occurred with the participation of Russia, this state will not disappear from the political maps of Europe.)
In the southern direction, Russia dealt with the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).
Crimean Khanate- one of the fragments of the collapsed Golden Horde - in the second half XV - early XVI V. was an ally first of the Moscow principality, and then of the Russian state. But at the turn of the first and second decades XVI century. the interests of the two states collide on the question of under whose control the territory of the so-called " Fields"- a huge space north of the Black Sea steppes (modern Central Black Earth Region). From that time on, the Crimean Tatars became the main and constant enemy of Russia in the south. Almost every year, Russian districts were subjected to large and small raids of the Crimean hordes, and the main line on which the Russian army met enemy, was Oka. By the 17th century, the Crimean Khanate became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey controlled the lower reaches of the Don and Dnieper, and Russia’s advance to the south now meant a clash with this enemy.
Beginning since the 20s XVII century. Tatar raids were carried out more and more damage n. Along three main routes - the Muravskaya, Izyumskaya and Kalmiusskaya roads - the Crimean Tatars invaded Russia. The main purpose of these raids, often carried out by order of the Turkish Sultan, was to capture captives and livestock. According to historians, for the first half of the 17th century. At least 150-200 thousand Russian people were taken away. And how many people died under the Tatar sabers, how many times Russian villages, towns and cities burned - this has not yet been calculated even approximately.
However, some especially large raids had not only predatory, but also political goals (or at least political consequences). As we already know, the massive invasions of 1632 and 1633 At first, they made it difficult for the Russian army to gather and advance to Smolensk, and then, when the Tatars broke through especially far into Russian territory, they led to mass desertion and unrest in the regiments. Russia's defeat in the Smolensk War was largely explained by the fact that military operations in the western direction began with unprotected southern borders, and, therefore, the right flank and rear of the operating army were vulnerable. Thus, without setting up a powerful barrier in the southern direction, one could not count on successful actions in the western direction. This, perhaps, the main lesson of the defeat in the Smolensk War was recognized by the Russian government, which immediately began practical action.
In the 30-50s. XVII century. on the southern and southeastern borders of the European part of Russia, a gigantic system of defensive lines was created - “devils”, consisting of earthen ramparts with palisades and ditches, forest fences, small wooden fortresses with removable garrisons of several dozen people and fortified cities with a permanent population and garrisons.
Southbound such a fortified line was the Belgorod line, erected in 1635-1653. This powerful system of defensive structures, which protected 600 kilometers of the southern border of Russia, began in the west in the Dnieper region, and in the east it went beyond modern Michurinsk (Tambov region). Thereby all main routes were blocked invasions of the Crimean Tatars.
Belgorod line was the most powerful and an extended defensive line. Its length with all bends was about 800 kilometers, and more than two dozen fortified cities became strongholds of defense, most of which were erected during the construction of the border. (In particular, on the territory of the modern Voronezh region, cities such as Olshansk, Ostrogozhsk, Korotoyak, Uryv, Kostensk and Orlov-gorodok were built. Voronezh, which arose as early as in 1585., also became a fortress of the Belgorod Line.) In addition to this defensive line, the Tambov, Simbirsk and Zakamsk “features” were also erected.
While the Belgorod Line was being built, Tatar raids continued. However, in 1637, an unprecedented event occurred that led to a temporary lull in Tatar attacks - the Don Cossacks took the Turkish fortress of Azov located at the mouth of the Don. The Cossacks appealed to the Russian government to annex Azov to Russia and send an army to help. However, this would mean a war with the Ottoman Empire, for which Russia did not have the strength. The “Azov sitting” of the Cossacks lasted for about five years. They held on bravely, repelling all attempts to knock them out of the fortress. But they could not hold the city on their own, and, having received a refusal from Moscow for help, in 1642 the Cossacks, having destroyed the fortifications, left Azov.
After this, the Tatars again increase pressure to the southern borders of Russia, and in 1644 and 1645. the raids reached a scale reminiscent of the years of the Smolensk War. The Tatars took advantage of the fact that fortifications of the Belgorod line were being built separate sections, between which there were unprotected passages. But as construction was completed, the line turned into a continuous chain of defensive structures, and with the completion of work in 1653, the possibility of Tatars appearing in the southern Russian districts became minimal. The south of the country was now well protected, and therefore the Russian government entered the war for Ukraine with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, without fear of repeating the tragedy of the Smolensk War.
During the Russian-Polish War of 1654-1667. For the first time in the history of Russian-Crimean relations, Russia managed to strike at the territory of the Khanate. In the spring of 1660, an 8,000-strong army on four hundred sailing and rowing ships built near Kozlov (modern Michurinsk) and Lebedyan moved down the Don. In 1662, this flotilla under the command of governor Ya. T. Khitrovo broke through the Turkish fortresses at the mouth of the Don, entered the Sea of Azov and attacked the Crimean Khanate. This sabotage was intended to keep some of the Tatars from raiding Ukraine, where Russian troops were operating at that time.
Then heading south there was a 10-year lull , during which, under the protection of the Belgorod line, the settlement and development of the border southern Russian districts with their fertile black earth lands was actively underway. But in 1673 the situation has changed dramatically: started Russian-Turkish war 1673-1681
In the spring of 1673. By order of the Turkish Sultan, the Crimean Khan threw tens of thousands of Tatars into Russian lands (“the whole Crimea,” as the documents of that time put it). The Tatars managed to “break the line” in one of the areas and break through to nearby counties. Soon, fearing encirclement, the khan led the horde away, but over the next three years the Tatars continuously and persistently harassed the Russian garrisons on the Belgorod line.
While the Tatars probed the defenses in southern Russia, Russian troops in 1673-1676. They operated in the lower reaches of the Don and the Azov region against Turkish garrisons and Tatar detachments, but were not successful.
Military actions in 1673-1676. took place without a formal declaration of war. Only in 1677 The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. In the summer of this year, a huge Turkish army, reinforced by detachments of Tatars, moved to Ukraine and besieged the Chigirin fortress, which was defended by a garrison of Russians and Ukrainians. The Russian army, led by the major military leader of that time, Prince Grigory Grigorievich Romodanovsky, moved to help the besieged. In the battle of Chigirin, Russian troops completely defeated and drove back the enemy.
In summer next year The Turks again besieged the fortress and this time took it. However, the Ottomans were unable to inflict a decisive defeat on the Russian troops. This ended the active clashes between the armies of Russia and the Ottoman Empire. But in 1679-1681. The raids of the Crimean Tatars resumed again.
In January 1681. The Bakhchisaray Truce was concluded for 20 years, the main result of which was the recognition of Russia's rights to Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv. However, not even a quarter of the truce period had passed before Russia declared war on Turkey.
During these years the Ottoman Empire led (and quite successfully) wars with its northern neighbors - Austria and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as its ancient enemy - Venice. In order to successfully resist Turkish aggression, in 1684 these countries united in a military anti-Turkish alliance, the so-called “Holy League”. Having signed the “eternal peace” with Poland in 1686, Russia, under the terms of the treaty, joined this coalition and in the same year declared war on the Ottoman Empire.
Russia's specific contribution The fight against Turkey involved two Crimean campaigns, undertaken under the command of Princess Sophia’s favorite, Prince Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn in 1687 and 1689. The purpose of these military actions was to strike at the Crimean Khanate. However, it was not possible to achieve this goal: both times the Russian troops, suffering huge losses, were forced to retreat without reaching the territory of the peninsula. Almost a century remained before the liquidation of the centuries-old enemy of the Russians, the Crimean Khanate.
For many years, Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was guided by several key goals. The first Romanovs sought to return as much of the East Slavic lands as possible, taken by Poland, and to gain access to the Baltic (which was controlled by Sweden). It was also during this period that the first wars against Turkey began. This confrontation was at an initial stage and reached its climax in the next century. Other regions where Russia sought to maintain its interests were the Caucasus and the Far East.
Troubles and war with Poland
The 17th century began tragically for Russia. The Rurik dynasty that ruled the country was ended. The brother-in-law of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Boris Godunov, came to power. His rights to the throne remained controversial and numerous opponents of the monarch took advantage of this. In 1604, an army under the command of the impostor False Dmitry invaded Russia from Poland. The contender for the throne found every support in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This episode began the Russian-Polish War, which ended only in 1618.
The conflict between two long-time neighbors had deep historical roots. Therefore, the entire foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was based on confrontation with Poland. The rivalry resulted in a series of wars. The first of them, in the 17th century, turned out to be unsuccessful for Russia. Although False Dmitry was overthrown and killed, the Poles later occupied Moscow on their own and controlled the Kremlin from 1610 to 1612.
Only the people's militia, assembled by national heroes Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, managed to expel the interventionists. Then a Zemsky Council was held, at which Mikhail Romanov was elected the legitimate king. The new dynasty stabilized the situation in the country. Nevertheless, many border lands remained in the hands of the Poles, including Smolensk. Therefore, all further Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was aimed at the return of original Russian cities.
Loss of the Baltic coast
Even Vasily Shuisky, fighting against the Poles, entered into an alliance with Sweden. In the Battle of Klushino in 1610, this coalition was defeated. Russia found itself paralyzed. The Swedes took advantage of the current situation and began to capture its cities near their border. They took control of Ivangorod, Korela, Yam, Gdov, Koporye and, finally, Novgorod.
Swedish expansion stopped under the walls of Pskov and Tikhvin. The sieges of these fortresses ended in a fiasco for the Scandinavians. Then the Russian army drove them out of their lands, although some of the fortresses remained in the hands of foreigners. The war with Sweden ended in 1617 with the signing of the Stolbovsky Peace Treaty. According to it, Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea and paid its neighbor a large indemnity of 20 thousand rubles. At the same time, the Swedes returned Novgorod. The consequence of the Stolbovo Peace was that Russian foreign policy in the 17th century acquired another important goal. Having recovered from the horrors of the Time of Troubles, the country began the struggle to return to the shores of the Baltic.
Smolensk War
During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645) there was only one major armed conflict with another country. It turned out to be the Smolensk War (1632 - 1634) against Poland. This campaign was led by commanders Mikhail Shein, Semyon Prozorovsky and Artemy Izmailov.
Before the war, Moscow diplomats tried to win over Sweden and the Ottoman Empire to their side. The anti-Polish coalition never came together. As a result, I had to fight alone. Nevertheless, Russia's foreign policy goals in the 17th century remained the same. The key task (return of Smolensk) was not completed. The months-long siege of the city ended with the surrender of Shein. The parties ended the war with the Peace of Polyanovsky. The Polish king Vladislav IV returned Trubchevsk and Serpeisk to Russia, and also renounced his claims to the Russian throne (which had been preserved since the Time of Troubles). For the Romanovs it was an intermediate success. Further struggle was postponed to the future.
Conflict with Persia
Mikhail Fedorovich's heir, Alexey, was more active than his father in the international arena. And although his main interests were in the west, he had to face challenges in other regions. So, in 1651, a conflict broke out with Persia.
Russian foreign policy in the 17th century, in short, began to come into contact with many states with which the Rurikovichs had not yet dealt. In the Caucasus such new country turned out to be Persia. The troops of her dynasty, the Safavids, attacked the lands controlled by the Russian kingdom. The main struggle was for Dagestan and the Caspian Sea. The trips ended in nothing. Alexey Mikhailovich did not want the conflict to escalate. He sent an embassy to Shah Abbas II and in 1653 the war was stopped and the status quo was restored on the border. Nevertheless, the Caspian issue persisted. Later, Peter I led the offensive here in the 18th century.
Annexation of Smolensk, Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv
The main success of Alexei Mikhailovich in foreign policy was the next war with Poland (1654 - 1667). The first stage of the campaign resulted in the unconditional defeat of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Zaporozhye and Moscow troops entered Ukraine and thus actually reunited the lands of the Eastern Slavs.
In 1656, a temporary Truce of Vilna was concluded between the parties. It was caused by the Swedish invasion of Poland and the simultaneous outbreak of war between the Swedes and Russians. In 1660, the Poles tried to carry out a counteroffensive, but it ended in failure. The war finally ended in 1667 after the signing of the Truce of Andrusovo. According to that agreement, the Smolensk region, Kyiv and the entire Left Bank Ukraine were annexed to Moscow. Thus, Alexey Mikhailovich successfully completed the task to which Russian foreign policy was subordinated in the 17th century. The short truce could still be interrupted by war again, so the conflict required further negotiations, which ended under Princess Sophia.
Fight with Sweden
As mentioned above, having achieved success in Ukraine, Alexey Mikhailovich decided to try his luck in the Baltic. The long-gestating revenge war with Sweden began in 1656. She turned out to be two years old. The fighting spanned Livonia, Finland, Ingermanland and Karelia.
Russia's foreign policy in the 17th and 18th centuries, in short, aimed to gain access to the Western seas, since this would allow for the establishment of better ties with Europe. This is exactly what Alexey Mikhailovich wanted to achieve. In 1658, the Truce of Valiesar was concluded, according to which Russia retained part of the lands in Livonia. However, three years later, Moscow diplomats had to agree to restore the previous borders in order to avoid a war on two fronts against Sweden and Poland at the same time. This order was consolidated by the Treaty of Kardis. The Baltic ports were never obtained.
War with Turkey
At the end of the Russian-Polish confrontation, the Ottoman Empire intervened in it, which sought to conquer Right Bank Ukraine. In the spring of 1672, an army of 300,000 invaded. She defeated the Poles. Subsequently, the Turks and Crimean Tatars also fought against Russia. In particular, the Belgorod defensive line was attacked.
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century in many ways turned out to be a logical prologue to foreign policy XVIII century. This pattern is especially evident in the example of the struggle for hegemony in the Black Sea. During the era of Alexei Mikhailovich and his son Fyodor, the Turks last tried to expand their possessions in Ukraine. That war ended in 1681. Türkiye and Russia drew borders along the Dnieper. The Zaporozhye Sich was also declared independent from Moscow.
Eternal peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The entire domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century depended heavily on relations with Poland. Periods of war and peace influenced the economy, social situation and the mood of the population. Relations between the two powers were finally settled in 1682. That spring, the countries concluded Eternal Peace.
The articles of the agreement stipulated the division of the Hetmanate. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth abandoned the protectorate that had existed over the Zaporozhye Sich for a long time. The provisions of the Andrusovo Truce were confirmed. Kyiv was recognized as an “eternal” part of Russia - for this Moscow paid compensation in the amount of 146 thousand rubles. Subsequently, the agreement allowed the formation of an anti-Swedish coalition during the Northern War. Also thanks to the Perpetual Peace, Russia and Poland joined forces with the rest of Europe in the fight against the Ottoman Empire.
Treaty of Nerchinsk
Even during the time of Ivan the Terrible, Russia began the colonization of Siberia. Gradually, brave peasants, Cossacks, hunters and industrialists moved further and further to the east. In the 17th century they reached the Pacific Ocean. Here, the objectives of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century were to establish friendly relations with China.
For a long time, the border between the two states was not marked, which led to various incidents and conflicts. To stop misunderstandings, a delegation of diplomats led by Fyodor Golovin went to the Far East. Russian and Chinese representatives met in Nerchinsk. In 1689, they signed an agreement according to which the border between the powers was established along the banks of the Argun River. Russia lost the Amur region and Albazin. The agreement turned out to be a diplomatic defeat for the government of Sofia Alekseevna.
Crimean campaigns
After reconciliation with Poland, Russian foreign policy at the end of the 17th century was directed towards the Black Sea and Turkey. For a long time, the country was haunted by the raids of the Crimean Khanate, a state that was in vassal relations with the Ottoman Empire. The campaign against a dangerous neighbor was led by Prince Vasily Golitsyn, the favorite of Princess Sofia Alekseevna.
In total, two Crimean campaigns took place (in 1687 and 1689). They weren't particularly successful. Golitsyn did not capture other people's fortresses. Nevertheless, Russia diverted significant forces of the Crimeans and Turks, which helped its European allies in the general anti-Ottoman war. Thanks to this, the Romanovs significantly increased their international prestige.
Azov campaigns
Sofya Alekseevna was deprived of power by her younger brother Peter, who grew up and did not want to share powers with the regent. The young tsar continued Golitsyn's work. His first military experience was connected precisely with the confrontation with Turkey.
In 1695 and 1696 Peter led two campaigns against Azov. On the second attempt, the Turkish fortress was captured. Nearby, the monarch ordered the founding of Taganrog. For his success near Azov, voivode Alexey Shein received the title of generalissimo. So, two directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century (southern and “Polish”) were marked by success. Now Peter turned his attention to the Baltic. In 1700 he began Northern War against Sweden, which immortalized his name. But that was already the history of the 18th century.
Results
The 17th century for Russia was rich in foreign policy events (both successes and failures). The result of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the century was the loss of many territories, including the Baltic coast and the Smolensk region. The reigning Romanov dynasty set about correcting the mistakes of its predecessors.
The peculiarities of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century turned out to be such that the greatest success awaited it in the Polish direction. Not only was Smolensk returned, but also Kyiv and Left Bank Ukraine. Thus, Moscow for the first time began to control all the key lands of the Old Russian state.
The results in the other two directions were more contradictory: the Baltic and the Black Sea. In the north, an attempt at revenge with Sweden failed, and this task fell on the shoulders of Peter I, who entered the new 18th century with his country. The same situation occurred with the southern seas. And if at the end of the 17th century Peter occupied Azov, then later he lost it, and the task of expansion in this region was completed only under Catherine II. Finally, under the first Romanovs, the colonization of Siberia continued, Far East first contacts with China were established.
The needs of Russia's economic, political and cultural development also determined its main foreign policy objectives.
1.1. The return of territories lost during the Time of Troubles, and in the future - the annexation of Ukrainian and other lands that were part of Ancient Rus'. In addition to religious and national impulses that pushed for unification with the related Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, a significant role was played here by the desire to obtain new arable land, which was due to the extensive nature of agriculture, as well as the desire of the state to increase the number of service people and taxpayers.
1.2. The struggle for access to the Baltic and Black Seas was determined, on the one hand, by Russia’s desire to establish economic ties with Europe, without which its backwardness could not be overcome, and on the other hand, by the need to ensure the security of its southern borders, to protect them from the predatory raids of the vassal of the Ottoman Empire - the Crimean khan.
1.3. Further advancement to the east in order to exploit the natural resources of Siberia (Russian people sought to enrich themselves through the production of sable, which had already been exterminated in the European part, but continued to be the main object of export trade) and the establishment of a “natural border” on the Pacific Ocean.
Some of the settlers were those fleeing a heavy tax burden or serfdom. In addition, the movement to the east demonstrated the desire of the Old Believers to escape persecution and gain the opportunity to practice the old faith.
2. Obstacles to solving foreign policy problems
2.1. Economic and military backwardness of Russia. IN Western Europe during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), qualitative changes occurred in the organization of the armed forces, battle tactics and weapons; the main striking force was the mercenary, professional infantry, reinforced by field artillery. In Russia, the basis of the army continued to be the noble cavalry, which successfully fought against the “splinters” of the Golden Horde, but was unable to withstand the advanced armies of Europe.
2.2. Dependence on weapons imports. The Russian government tried to ensure the rearmament and tactical retraining of the army by importing weapons and hiring foreign officers, which made it dependent on leading European countries. On the eve of the Russian-Polish War of 1654-1667. Russia purchased 40 thousand muskets and 20 thousand pounds of gunpowder from Holland and Sweden, which amounted to 2/3 of its weapons. The situation was further aggravated by the fact that Russia's only seaport - Arkhangelsk - was extremely vulnerable from Sweden, which continued to lay claim to the northern Russian lands. These circumstances predetermined the aggravation of Russian-Swedish relations.
2.3. Diplomatic and cultural isolation of Russia, which in the West was perceived as an eastern backward country, of interest only as an object of expansion. The political border of Europe at that time ran along the Dnieper.
Thus, a vicious circle developed: Russia’s economic and military backwardness, its cultural isolation were largely caused by isolation from maritime trade communications, but it was possible to make a breakthrough, that is, to overcome the Turkish-Polish-Swedish barrier that stood on its way to Europe , only by creating a powerful army and breaking through the diplomatic blockade.
3. Western direction. Fight for Ukraine
3.1. Smolensk War (1632-1634). In 1632, taking advantage of the international situation, and also harboring hopes that after the death of Sigismund III, internal strife would begin in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, miscalculating its forces, began a war to revise the Deulin agreements.
The Smolensk War due to diplomatic blunders (the Polish king Wladislav managed to agree with the Crimean Tatars on joint actions), the slowness of the Russian troops led by the boyar M. B. Shein, and most importantly, the weakness of the army, composed mainly of servicemen (having learned about the threat of Crimean detachments advancing deep into Russia, they left the army and went to their estates), ended with the signing in July 1634. Polyanovsky world. Through it, cities captured by the Russians were returned to Poland. initial stage war, but Vladislav renounced his claims to the Russian throne.
Voivode Shein and A.V. Izmailov were declared to be the culprits of the defeat, and their heads were cut off.
3.2. Liberation movement in Ukraine.
. Reasons for movement. IN 1648 In Ukraine, another uprising broke out, caused by social oppression, political, religious and national inequality, which the Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox population experienced while being part of the Catholic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
. Zaporozhye Sich. The instigators of the protest were the Zaporozhye Cossacks. Having settled at the Dnieper rapids, they, like the Don Cossacks, did not engage in agriculture, retained autonomy, choosing their elders, carried out guard duty, repelling the raids of the Crimean Tatars and receiving rewards for this from the Polish government. But the cash salary was received only by those Cossacks who were included in the list (registry). The Zaporozhye Sich was replenished with fugitives, but the register remained unchanged, which strained relations between the Cossacks and the authorities.
. First victories. The uprising was led by the elected hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky. His troops, reinforced by peasants and townspeople who came from Ukraine and Belarus, defeated Polish troops in a number of battles and occupied Kyiv in December 1648. In August 1649 after the rebel victory healthy, Overshadowed by the betrayal of their ally, the Crimean Khan, bribed by the Poles, a compromise peace treaty was signed. According to it, the number of registered Cossacks increased to 40 thousand, in three voivodeships - Kiev, Chernigov and Bratslav - only Orthodox Christians could hold positions, which sharply limited the power of the Polish gentry. However, feudal relations remained, and the lords could return to their possessions.
B. Khmelnitsky, realizing the fragility of the results achieved and the weakness of the rebels, more than once turned to the Russian government for help, expressing Ukraine’s readiness to join Russia. However, realizing that this would lead to war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and taking into account Russia’s unpreparedness for it, the government did not dare to satisfy the hetman’s request.
. Defeats of the rebels. Help to Russia. The renewed hostilities confirmed the validity of B. Khmelnitsky’s fears. In 1651, near Berestechko, his troops were defeated, and the signed Belotserkovsky Treaty reduced the Cossack register to 20 thousand and left restrictions for the Polish gentry only in the Kiev Voivodeship. After the defeat in the fall of 1653, the threat of complete defeat of the rebel forces loomed.
Russia could no longer allow this, since with such a development of events it would be deprived of a real opportunity to achieve its foreign policy goals in the western direction. In the decision Zemsky Sobor of 1653 on the acceptance of Ukraine “under the high hand” of the Russian Tsar The influence of the idea “Moscow is the third Rome”, which intensified in connection with church reform, also had an impact.
3.3. The accession of Ukraine to Russia.
. Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslav V January 1654 made a decision to annex Ukraine to Russia, which provided it with significant independence. The elective Cossack government, headed by the hetman, remained, who, for example, had the right to foreign policy relations with all countries, with the exception of Poland and Turkey.
But soon a gradual restriction of the autonomous rights of Ukraine and the unification of governing bodies began in order to fully integrate it with Russia. These processes developed until late XVIII V.
. Reasons for joining:
Religious and ethnic community of the Russian and Ukrainian peoples;
Their common historical past and joint struggle against external enemies;
The specific historical situation in mid-17th century c., when for Ukraine maintaining independence seemed unrealistic and it was necessary to choose the “lesser evil,” that is, to join (and for many, reunite) with Russia, which was close in culture and faith, which also promised it to maintain internal independence;
The accession also met the interests of Russia (see paragraph 1.1.).
3.4. War with Poland and Sweden. The decision of the Zemsky Sobor in 1653 caused a war with Poland (1654-1667).
. The first stage of the Russian-Polish war. At first it was successful, and already in 1654 Russian troops captured Smolensk and a number of cities in Belarus, meeting with the support of the local population.
. War with Sweden (1656-1658). Sweden took advantage of Poland's failures, striving for hegemony in this region and turning the Baltic Sea into a “Swedish lake”. In addition, the Swedes did not want Russia to strengthen, and in 1655 their troops occupied Warsaw. Strong Sweden posed a greater threat to Russia than defeated Poland, therefore, having concluded a truce with it, Russia entered the war with Sweden. But competition with one of the most advanced armies in Europe was beyond the strength of the Russian troops, and in addition, Sweden signed peace with Poland in 1660. Due to the impossibility of continuing the war, Russia in 1661 went to the signing Peace of Kardis, according to which she returned the lands she had conquered in Livonia and again lost access to the sea (the conditions of the Stolbovo Peace were restored).
The second stage of the Russian-Polish war. Poland, having received a respite, managed to regain strength and continue the war with Russia. In addition, after the death of Khmelnitsky, part of the Cossack leadership took the side of Poland. The war became protracted, successes alternated with defeats. But in the end 1667 Russia achieved signing Truce of Andrusovo, along which Smolensk was returned to her and the lands of Left Bank Ukraine were crossed. Kyiv, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was given up for two years, but was never returned to Poland.
The terms of this truce were fixed "Eternal Peace" 1686 city, which secured Kyiv for Russia and became its major diplomatic victory.
4. Russia's relations with Crimea and the Ottoman Empire
4.1. Russian-Turkish War 1677-1681 The reunification of part of Ukraine with Russia provoked opposition from the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire behind it, which launched a war against Russia. In 1677, Russian-Ukrainian troops managed to defend the strategically important fortress of Chigirin, besieged by superior enemy forces. The stubborn resistance of Russia forced the weakened by this time Porto sign in 1681 in Bakhchisaray A 20-year truce with Russia, according to which its acquisitions were recognized, and the lands between the Dnieper and Bug were declared neutral.
4.2. European countries, in the face of Ottoman expansion, tried to unite their efforts. IN 1684 The Holy League was created - a coalition consisting of Austria, Poland and Venice, which also counted on the support of Russia. It was this interest that prompted Poland to sign the “Eternal Peace” and abandon Kyiv. This led to a breakthrough in Russia's diplomatic isolation and its rapprochement with Poland, which then contributed to the solution of the main foreign policy task - securing access to the sea.
4.3. New war. By making a commitment to Holy League, the Moscow government broke the truce and in 1686 declared war on the Porte. But attempts V. V. Golitsyna V 1687 and 1689 the capture of Crimea ended in failure, although they helped the allies on the western front.
5. East direction
The move to the east was less stressful for the country. During the 17th century. Russian explorers advanced from Western Siberia to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. As they advanced, they created strongholds: Krasnoyarsk fort, Bratsk fort, Yakut fort, Irkutsk winter quarters, etc. They collected money from the local population that became part of Russia. yasak- fur tax.
At the same time, peasant colonization of the arable lands of Southern Siberia began. TO end of XVII V. The Russian population of the region was 150 thousand people.
6. Conclusions
During the 17th century. Russia was inconsistent, periodically retreating and accumulating forces, but still solved tasks within its power. But the overall result of its foreign policy was small, and acquisitions were obtained through maximum effort and enormous financial costs. The main strategic tasks - gaining access to the seas and reunifying Russian lands - remained unresolved.
Loading...