At present, many psychometricians see more and more clearly the imperfection of their means of assessing intelligence. Some of them are trying to improve the testing procedure, widely using mathematical and static methods not only in compiling test systems, but also in developing intelligence models underlying these tests.

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Intelligence, intellectual development and intellectual skills.

The concept of "intelligence", which passed into modern languages ​​from Latin in the 16th century and originally meant the ability to understand, has become an increasingly important general scientific category in recent decades. The specialized literature discusses the intellectual resources of individual groups of the population and the intellectual needs of society as a whole.

It can be said without exaggeration that the vast majority of empirical research in psychology is related to the study of the cognitive sphere of personality.

As you know, the cognitive sphere of personality is investigated with the help of tests.

The concept of "test" as a system of short standardized tasks designed to objectively measure the level of development of certain mental processes and personality traits was first introduced by the famous English psychologist F. Galton. The ideas of F. Galton were further developed in the works of the American psychologist D. Cattell, who developed test systems for studying various types of sensitivity, reaction time, and short-term memory capacity.

The next step in the development of testing was the transfer of the test method from measuring the simplest sensorimotor qualities and memory to measuring higher mental functions, denoted by the term "mind", "intelligence". This step was taken by the famous psychologist A. Binet, who developed in 1905, together with T. Simon, a system of tests to measure the level of development of the intellect of children.

On the basis of test methods, an indicator of mental development is obtained - the intelligence quotient (eng. Intellectual quotient, abbr. IQ ). Definition test system IQ includes both tasks that require a verbal answer to the questions posed, and tasks for manipulation, for example, folding an integral figure according to its parts. It is required to solve (with a time limit) simple arithmetic problems and examples, answer a number of questions, determine the meaning of some terms and words. Responses are scored on a predetermined scale. The total number of points obtained for all tasks is translated into the corresponding indicator I.Q.

In 1921, the journal "Psychology of Learning" organized a discussion in which the leading American psychologists took part. They were each asked to define intelligence and name the best way to measure intelligence. As the best way to measure intelligence, almost all scientists have named testing, however, their definitions of intelligence turned out to be paradoxically contradictory to each other. Intelligence was defined as "the ability for abstract thinking" (L. Termen), "the ability to give good answers according to the criterion of truth, truth" (E. Thorndike), a body of knowledge or the ability to learn, providing the ability to adapt to the surrounding reality "(S. Colvin ) and etc.

At present, in the theory of testology, approximately the same situation remains as in the 1920s and 1940s. There is still no agreement on what intelligence tests should measure); as before, testers build their diagnostic systems on the basis of conflicting models of intelligence.

For example, the modern American psychologist F. Freeman builds a theory according to which intelligence consists of 6 components:

1. Ability for digital operations.
2. Lexicon.
3. The ability to perceive similarities or differences between geometric shapes.
4. fluency of speech.
5. Reasoning ability.
6. Memory.

Here, both the general mental function (memory) and such abilities that are clearly direct consequences of learning (the ability for digital operations, vocabulary) are taken as components of intelligence.

The English psychologist G. Eysenck essentially reduces a person's intellect to the speed of mental processes.

American psychologists R.Kettel and J.Horn distinguish 2 components in the intellect: "fluid" and "crystallized". The "fluid" component of intelligence is hereditarily predetermined and manifests itself directly in all spheres of human activity, reaching its peak in early adulthood and then fading away. The "crystallized" component of intellect is actually the sum of life-formed skills.

The author of one of the most famous methods of studying intelligence, American psychologist D. Wexler, interprets intelligence as a general ability of an individual, which manifests itself in purposeful activity, correct reasoning and understanding, and in adapting the environment to one's capabilities. For the famous Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, the essence is in structuring the relationship between the environment and the organism.

German scientists-teachers Melhorn G. and Melhorn H.G. called intelligence is a set of abilities that characterize the level and quality of the thinking processes of an individual. They believe that the function of the intellect is to mentally solve objectively existing problems. Directed problem thinking is the expression of the most developed form of intelligence. It creates new knowledge for the development of the surrounding world. Problem thinking leads to a more or less large and qualitative expansion of the horizons of knowledge, which makes possible a conscious impact on nature and society in accordance with human thoughts.

Psychodiagnostics suggest that it is difficult to compare IQs that are derived from various tests with each other, since different concepts of intelligence are the basis of different tests, and different tasks are included in the tests.

At present, many psychometricians see more and more clearly the imperfection of their means of assessing intelligence. Some of them are trying to improve the testing procedure, widely using mathematical and static methods not only in compiling test systems, but also in developing intelligence models underlying these tests. So, in testing, a direction has become widespread, representatives of which, when characterizing and measuring intelligence, use the method of factor analysis.

Representatives of this trend rely on the work of Ch. Spearman, who back in 1904, based on the analysis of the results of passing a number of intellectual tests by subjects, put forward a theory according to which intelligence consists of a common factor “ G "-" general mental energy "- involved in solving all intellectual tests, and a number of specific factors-" S ”, each of which operates within the limits of this test and does not correlate with other tests.

Spearman's ideas were then developed in the works of L. Thurstone and J. Gilford.

Representatives of the factorial approach in testology proceed from the real observation that some people who perform well on some tests may fail to act when solving others. Consequently, different components of intelligence are involved in solving different tests.

Guilford experimentally singled out 90 factors (abilities) of intelligence (out of 120 factors theoretically, in his opinion, possible).

In order to get an idea of ​​the intellectual development of the subject, it is necessary, according to Guilford, to investigate the degree of development of all factors that make up intelligence.

L. Thurstone, in turn, developed a model of intelligence, consisting of 7 factors:

1. Spatial ability.
2. Perception speed.
3. Ease of handling digital material.
4. Understanding words.
5. associative memory.
6. fluency of speech.
7. understanding or reasoning.

In general, intelligence (from the Latin intellektus - understanding, concept) - in a broad sense, all cognitive activity of a person, in a narrower sense - thinking. In our work, we will focus on the definition of intelligence as a set of cognitive processes from sensations and perceptions to thinking and imagination, inclusive.

The leading role in the structure of the intellect is occupied by thinking, which organizes any cognitive process. This is expressed in the purposefulness and selectivity of these processes: perception is manifested in observation, memory captures phenomena that are significant in one respect or another and selectively “feeds” them in the process of thinking, imagination is included as a necessary link in solving a creative problem, i.e. each of the mental processes is organically included in the mental act of the subject.

The intellect is the highest product of the brain and is the most complex form of reflection of objective reality, which arose on the basis of simpler reflections and includes these simpler (sensory) forms.

A qualitative leap in the development of human intellect occurred with the emergence of labor activity and the appearance of speech. Intellectual activity is closely connected with human practice, serves it, is tested by it. Abstracting from the individual, generalizing the typical and essential, the human intellect does not deviate from reality, but more deeply and fully reveals the patterns of the existing.

The social nature of human activity ensures its high intellectual activity. It is aimed not only at the cognition of objective reality, but also at its change in accordance with social needs. This nature of intellectual activity ensures the unity of cognition itself (thinking), attitude to the cognizable (emotions) and practical implementation (will) of this action.

The upbringing of the child's intellect requires the comprehensive development of his cognitive abilities (the breadth and subtleties of various sensations, observation, exercises of various types of memory, stimulation of the imagination), but especially the development of thinking. The upbringing of the intellect is one of the central tasks of the comprehensive harmonious development of the personality. The pedagogical encyclopedia emphasizes that “intellectual education is the most important aspect of preparing for the life and work of the younger generations, which consists in guiding the development of intelligence and cognitive abilities by arousing interest in intellectual activity, arming with knowledge, methods of obtaining and applying them in practice, instilling a culture of intellectual labor ". Concern for the education of a growing intellect is the task of the family, school and pedagogical science along the entire path of their historical development.

It has been proved that intellectual development is a continuous process that takes place in learning, work, games, life situations, and that it most intensively occurs in the course of active assimilation and creative application of knowledge, i.e. in acts that contain especially valuable operations for the development of the intellect.

It is possible to identify typical features of a developed intellect, the knowledge of which is important for understanding the process of intellectual education. The first such feature is an active attitude to the surrounding world of phenomena. The desire to go beyond the known, the activity of the mind find expression in the constant desire to expand knowledge and creatively apply them for theoretical and practical purposes. The activity of intellectual activity is closely related to observation, the ability to single out in phenomena and facts their essential aspects and interrelations.

A developed intellect is characterized by a systematic approach that provides internal links between the task and the means necessary for its most rational solution, which leads to a sequence of actions and searches.

The systemic nature of the intellect is at the same time its discipline, which ensures accuracy in work and reliability of the results obtained.

A developed intellect is also characterized by independence, which manifests itself both in cognition and in practical activities. The independence of the intellect is inextricably linked with its creative nature. If a person is accustomed in the school of life to executive labor and imitative actions, then it is very difficult for him to gain independence. Independent intelligence is not limited to using other people's thoughts and opinions. He is looking for new ways of studying reality, notices previously unnoticed facts and gives them explanations, reveals new patterns.

In modern psychology, it is generally accepted that learning leads to intellectual development. However, the problem of connection and interaction between the schoolchild's teaching and his intellectual development has not yet been sufficiently studied.

The very concept of intellectual (mental) development is interpreted by different researchers in different ways.

S. L. Rubinshtein and B. G. Ananiev were among the first to call for research into general mental development, general intelligence. Thus, Ananiev spoke of these categories as such a complex mental trait of a person, on which the success of learning and work depends.

This problem has been studied in various directions. Among these studies, it should be noted the research of N.S. Leites, who notes that general mental abilities, which primarily include the quality of the mind (although they can also significantly depend on volitional and emotional characteristics), characterize the possibility of theoretical knowledge and practical activity of a person. The most essential thing for the human intellect is that it allows you to reflect the connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world and thus makes it possible to creatively transform reality. As N.S.Leites showed, some activities and self-regulation are rooted in the properties of higher nervous activity, which are essential internal conditions for the formation of general mental abilities.

Psychologists are trying to uncover the structure of general mental abilities. For example, N.D. Levitov believes that general mental abilities primarily include those qualities that are designated as quick wits (quickness of mental orientation), thoughtfulness, criticality.

N.A. Menchinskaya fruitfully investigated the problem of mental development with a group of her colleagues. These studies proceed from the position formed by D.N. Bogoyavlensky and N.A. Menchinskaya that mental development is associated with two categories of phenomena. Firstly, there must be an accumulation of a fund of knowledge - P.P. Blonsky drew attention to this: “An empty head does not reason: the more experience and knowledge this head has, the more capable it is to reason.” Thus, knowledge is a necessary condition for thinking . Secondly, those mental operations with the help of which knowledge is acquired are important for characterizing mental development. That is, a characteristic feature of mental development is the accumulation of a special fund of well-developed and firmly fixed mental techniques that can be attributed to intellectual skills. In a word, mental development is characterized both by what is reflected in consciousness, and even more so by how reflection occurs.

This group of studies analyzes the mental operations of schoolchildren from various points of view. The levels of productive thinking are outlined, determined by the levels of analytical and synthetic activity. These levels are based on:

a) links between analysis and synthesis,

b) the means by which these processes are carried out,

c) the degree of completeness of analysis and synthesis.

Along with this, mental techniques are also studied as a system of operations specially formed to solve problems of a certain type within the same school subject or to solve a wide range of problems from different fields of knowledge (E.N. Kabanova-Meller).

The point of view of L.V. Zankov is also of interest. For him, decisive in terms of mental development is the integration into a certain functional system of such modes of action that are characteristic in nature. For example, younger schoolchildren were taught analytical observation in some lessons, and generalization of essential features in others. We can talk about progress in mental development when these diverse ways of mental activity are united into one system, into a single analytical-synthetic activity.

In connection with the above, the question arises of the substantive criteria (signs, indicators) of mental development. The list of such very general criteria is given by N.D. Levitov. In his opinion, mental development is characterized by the following indicators:

1. independent thinking,
2. speed and strength of assimilation of educational material,
3. speed of mental orientation (resourcefulness) in solving non-standard tasks,
4. deep penetration into the essence of the phenomena being studied (the ability to distinguish the essential from the non-essential),
5. criticality of the mind, the lack of a tendency to biased, unreasonable judgments.

For D.B. Elkonin, the main criterion for mental development is the presence of a properly organized structure of educational activity (formed educational activity) with its components - setting a task, choosing means, self-control and self-examination, as well as the correct ratio of subject and symbolic plans in educational activity.

In this regard, N.A. Menchinskaya considers such features of mental activity as:

1. speed (or, accordingly, slowness) of assimilation;
2. flexibility of the thought process (i.e., the ease or, accordingly, the difficulty of restructuring work, adapting to changing task conditions);
3. close connection (or, accordingly, fragmentation) of visual and abstract components of thinking;
4. various levels of analytical and synthetic activities.

E.N. Kabanova-Meller considers the main criterion of mental development a wide and active transfer of methods of mental activity, formed on one object, to another object. For example, the transfer of a thinking scheme when deriving a formulafor an independent derivation of the formula. A high level of mental development is associated with an interdisciplinary generalization of mental techniques, opening up the possibility of their wide transfer from one subject to another.

Of particular interest are the criteria developed by Z.I. Kalmykova in the laboratory with N.A. Menchinskaya. This is, firstly, the pace of progress - an indicator that should not be confused with the individual pace of work. Speed ​​of work and speed of generalization are two different things. You can work slowly but generalize quickly, and vice versa. The pace of progress is determined by the number of exercises of the same type needed to form a generalization.

Another criterion for the mental development of schoolchildren is the so-called "economical thinking", that is, the number of reasoning, on the basis of which students identify a pattern that is new to themselves. At the same time, ZI Kalmykova proceeded from the following considerations. Students with a low level of mental development poorly use the information contained in the conditions of the problem, often solve it on the basis of blind trials or unreasonable analogies. Therefore, their path to a solution turns out to be uneconomical, it is overloaded with concretizing, repeated and false judgments. Such students constantly require correction and outside help. Students with a high level of mental development have a large fund of knowledge and ways to operate with it, fully extract the information contained in the conditions of the problem, constantly control their actions, so their path to solving the problem is concise, concise, rational.

An important task of modern psychology is to build objective, scientifically based indicator psychological methods that can be used to diagnose the level of mental development of schoolchildren at various age stages.

To date, some methods have been developed for diagnosing the intellectual development of schoolchildren in the learning process. These methods are associated with the assessment and measurement of such parameters of mental activity as:

1. methods of mental activity;
2. the ability to independently acquire knowledge, etc.

Mental abilities of a person are psychological qualities that determine the speed of perception, assimilation of new information and skills. The ability to adapt to different situations and use existing knowledge (skills) in practice is also called mental abilities. They include almost all human cognitive abilities, namely:

• performance;
• sensation;
• thinking;
• perception;
• imagination.

For a long time, scientists have argued that these qualities are inherited. Recently, the situation has changed dramatically. Of course, everyone has different mental abilities and if for someone it takes a few minutes to solve a problem, then for other people it will take a day to find the answer.

The level of mental abilities is influenced by factors such as:

1. Memory. This includes the ability to quickly memorize and reproduce the necessary information at the right time.
2. The ability to clearly distinguish good from bad is called common sense. The ability to soberly assess the situation and make an objective decision.
3. Understanding is another decisive factor. From how much a person is able to perceive the information heard, read and seen, his mental abilities directly depend.

There is an assertion that in addition to heredity, other external factors, the character and purposefulness of a person can influence intelligence.

How can you influence the level of your mental abilities?

1. Due to constant mechanical work and actions that do not require any reflection and decision making, a person does not develop. The consequence of such a situation is a stop in development and not revealing one's potential to the end.

It also happens vice versa. A person who is not interested in anything, getting into the company of creative and purposeful personalities, subconsciously and consciously seeks to reach their level. The perception of information and the effort to assimilate the information heard, the search for interesting and not fully understood facts in the scientific literature makes each of us more educated and developed.

2. No matter how hackneyed it may sound, but a healthy and active lifestyle also affects the development of abilities. Regular exercise, saturation of the body with oxygen and useful vitamins always have a positive effect on physical, mental and psychological development.

3. Reading literature, solving puzzles and crossword puzzles will definitely benefit the intellect of each person.

4. In developed countries, specially designed programs that help improve brain function are in great demand.

It is mental abilities that are one of the constantly studied human qualities.

Ways to measure and determine the mental abilities of a person

It's no secret that you can test your intelligence and get acquainted with the results by passing an IQ test. Quite often, large corporations and developed companies resort to this method. From the end result of the intelligence coefficient, you can accurately understand whether a person is able to deal with a complex problem or whether he will not be able to cope with even the simplest task.

Even without sending a person to the test, you can find out about his development and intelligence with the help of a simple conversation. Ideal assistants in this matter will be:

• The ability to remember and quote classical literature (cinema) and knowledge of catchphrases is a direct indicator of an intellectually developed person. In addition, reading books of a certain genre can be another interesting topic for discussion;
• The lexicon and a large vocabulary will also help to make the right impression of the interlocutor;
• Courtesy, the ability to hear and take into account the knowledge of their opponents;
• Look at a person's behavior in an unforeseen situation (mental abilities are closely related to the ability to respond and make informed, reasonable decisions);
• The presence of a sense of humor and the ability to use it in accordance with the appropriate situation;
• The presence of hobbies, interests and hobbies also tell about the development of the interlocutor (if a person is absolutely not interested in anything, he stands in one place, and as a result he will not be able to maintain a normal conversation).

That is, that intelligence- this is a certain level of development of the mental activity of the individual, providing the opportunity to acquire more and more new knowledge and effectively use them in the course of life, the ability to understand and comprehend. This is the basis of knowledge and behavior of people (rationalism) in society.

According to modern researchers, general intelligence exists as a universal mental ability.

Abilities - (English abilities, aptitudes, capabilities) - individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. The problem of abilities has always worried the minds of researchers, therefore, abilities (as well as a person as a whole) are studied by various sciences, but general psychology, and then management psychology, considers this problem most deeply and comprehensively. It is through abilities that a person becomes a subject of activity, including managerial, through the development of abilities a person reaches the pinnacle of professional skill and career growth. Domestic scientists S. L. Rubenshtein, B. M. Teplov, N. S. Leiges, V. N. Druzhinin, V. D. Shadrikov and others proposed to the scientific world a number of concepts that helped to gradually form a compromise point of view on the study of problems abilities: abilities arise in a person on the basis of inclinations.

Makings- these are congenital anatomical and physiological features of the brain, nervous system, sensory organs and movement, a functional feature of the human body, which constitute the natural basis for the development of its abilities. People by nature are endowed with various inclinations, they serve as the basis for the development of abilities. Inclinations not developed in time disappear.

The structuring of intellectual abilities is as follows:

1. Inclinations are the basis of abilities, laid down at the genetic level.

2. General abilities that are equally manifested in various types of human activity (learning, mindfulness, memory, imagination, role, performance).

3. Special abilities manifested in certain types of activity (musical, mathematical, organizational, etc.).

4 . Group abilities that are grouped and developed on the basis of inclinations, general and special.

5. Professional abilities, manifested in the process of choosing a profession and developing labor activity.

The intellectual abilities of the individual are especially actively formed, developed and manifested in managerial activities. That is why every organization is interested in recognizing the abilities of employees, including resorting to psychodiagnostic methods developed in numerous numbers.

The intellectual abilities of a person are improved by mastering the knowledge, skills and abilities required for professional activities. Student years provide tremendous opportunities for this.

Thinking(eng. thinking) - the mental process of a generalized reflection of reality, the highest form of human creative activity, coupled with his unconscious desire to obtain the greatest benefit in all respects. On the basis of thinking, an individual makes a certain decision, which is always optimal for him in this particular situation. At the same time, the quality of thinking of a particular individual is directly affected by the degree of distortion of objective reality in his mind. The more adequately the individual realizes the conditions regulating his relations with the external environment, the more correct, i.e. it will be more profitable for him in the end to make his decision.

The process of reflection and cognition by a person of the surrounding reality is carried out in the unity and interconnection of its steps - sensual and logical.

The sensory form of cognition is realized in sensations, perceptions and representations, the logical form - in concepts, judgments and inferences.

The generalized reflection of reality, which is thinking, is the result of processing not only the experience of an individual and his contemporaries, but also of previous generations.

But thinking is also a person's indirect reflection of reality in its essential spheres and relations.

A person resorts to indirect cognition in cases where direct cognition is impossible due to the lack of any analyzers (for example, a person does not have analyzers for capturing X-rays), or, for example, when direct assignment is possible, but not rational.

Thinking makes it possible to understand the laws and patterns of the material world, cause-and-effect relationships in nature and in the process of managerial relations, as well as the laws of the human psyche. The source and criterion of mental reality, as well as the area for application and results, is practice.

The physiological basis of thinking is the reflex activity of the brain, those temporary nerve connections that are formed in the cerebral cortex. These connections arise under the influence of the signals of the second system (speech), reflecting reality, but with the obligatory reliance on the signals of the nervous system (sensations, perceptions, ideas). In the process of thinking, both signaling systems are closely interconnected with each other. The second signal system is based on the first and determines the continuous connection of a generalized reflection of reality, which is thinking, with sensory knowledge of the objective world through sensations, perceptions, ideas.

Whatever thoughts arise in the human brain, they appear and exist on the basis of linguistic material. On the basis of linguistic terms and phrases, a person develops abstract concepts that reflect general, essential features and phenomena of reality.

Summarizing the objects and phenomena of reality with a word, a person goes beyond what is directly given in sensations and perceptions. Language, being a universal means of communication, and therefore the most important factor in the formation of individual consciousness, carries in itself, in each of its “elements” (in the lexical meanings of words, particles, individual phonemes, etc.) common to all who know this language, universal to them the meanings of the most real objects of activity. From this follows the most important conclusion for understanding not only the meaning of language, but also thinking in general: in the conditions of the jointly divided life activity of people, turning to the other and to oneself with the help of universally significant means of communication is cooperation with this other (or with the “other” in oneself), there is an attitude towards him as one who understands or is able to understand the motives that prompted this assistance.

Thus, the instrument of thought is the meaning of the word. “Words are needed to catch a thought; when the thought is caught, the words are forgotten,” said Chuang Tzu, an ancient Chinese philosopher who lived around 369–286. BC.

In its formation, human thinking goes through two stages: pre-conceptual and conceptual. The first is inherent in children under 5 years old, the second is formed by the age of 16–17 and develops throughout life.

The mental thought process of a person is carried out in two main forms: the formation and assimilation of concepts, judgments and conclusions, as well as the solution of mental problems (problems).

concept(eng. concept) - a form of knowledge that reflects the individual and special, which is at the same time universal. The concept acts as a form of thinking, reflecting the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena, which is expressed by a word or a group of words.

Concepts are distinguished according to the degree of abstraction: concrete (car, computer) and abstract (friendship, justice, happiness). Behind each concept is a special objective action (or their system) that reproduces the object of knowledge. Concepts that have historically developed in society objectively exist in the forms of human activity and in its results - expediently created objects.

The individual assimilates them before he learns to act with particular manifestations. The assimilated general is a prototype, a measure, a scale for evaluating empirically occurring things.

Judgment is built on a set of concepts - a generally valid verbal form of thinking (statement), thanks to which abstract universality is given to sensory experience, the connections between objects and phenomena of reality and their properties and signs are reflected. Judgments are formed directly, what is perceived, and indirectly - with the help of inferences and reasoning. Based on extensive managerial experience, with the help of common representatives and made on the basis of judgments, the leaders of organizations often make rather complex conclusions.

inference(eng. conclusion) - a generally valid verbal form, thanks to which, indirectly, and not on the basis of observations, objects and their relationships can be identified and designated. This is a form of thinking in which a conclusion is made on the basis of several judgments. To check the correctness of the conclusion, it is enough to carefully study the subject, compare the representation with the fact, with the general in the facts. In managerial practice and in everyday life, one can come to a conclusion using the methods of induction, deduction or analogy. All these are logical conclusions reflecting the injustice of thought: induction - from the particular to the general; deduction - from the general to the particular; analogy - from particular to particular.

Thinking is an analysis, synthesis, generalization of the conditions and requirements of the task and ways to solve it in the process of managerial relations. With these continuous processes, discrete mental operations are formed, which thinking generates, but to which it is not reduced. Thinking unfolds as a process of solving a problem, where conditions and requirements are identified. The task should be not only understandable, but also accepted by the person.

All human mental activity is motivated by motives, which are not only conditions, but also affect its productivity. It is the mental activity that is aimed at solving numerous managerial problems. Here it is required to analyze, generalize, compare, classify, abstract, concretize, clarify everything that a person engaged in managerial work thinks about, what he wants to do and what result to get.

Thinking is characterized by the unity of the conscious and the unconscious. Therefore, an important role in mental activity is played by emotions that provide control over the search for a solution to the problem. In this case, the product of thinking may be the goals of subsequent actions.

Emotions(lat. emovere - to excite, excite) - a special class of mental processes and states (of humans and animals) associated with instincts, needs, motives and reflecting in the form of direct experience (satisfaction, joy, fear, excitement, etc.), the significance of phenomena and situations affecting the individual for the implementation of his life. Emotions are differentiated into positive and negative. Very often, in extreme conditions, affects can develop - the main type of emotional phenomena that impose on a person a way of "emergency" resolution of the situation (for example, flight, aggression). In general, a person has an extraordinary variety of emotions, which is the most important condition for the development of him as a person. Only when they become the subject of stable emotional relationships, ideals, duties, norms of behavior of the same management personnel turn into real motives for activity. Emotions dominate where there is insufficiently conscious regulation of behavior and weak management culture skills.

At one time, IP Pavlov identified three types of reflection of reality in people. First type art. Most often, these people live with impressions and emotions from real life, in which figurative thinking prevails: creative individuals are representatives of art and literature. Edeic images often appear in them, i.e. representations projected in a dream.

Second type- thoughtful. These are people who mainly operate with concepts and abstractions based on words. They often go far in their isolation from reality, with which they have little contact.

People who have two types of thinking are in a state of equilibrium form a third - medium type. The focus of their practical mind, in contrast to theoretical thinking, is focused on the transition from abstract thinking to practice. For management personnel, especially for managers, the ability to quickly switch attention from one problem to another, the ability to keep in view not only a lot of details, but also the desired end result of the managed object, this type of thinking is most preferable.

A person always resorts to mental operations - compares, analyzes, generalizes and classifies. Therefore, the essence of the main mental operations is as follows:

analysis - mental division of the integral structure of the object of reflection into its constituent elements;

synthesis - the reunification of elements into a coherent structure;

comparison - establishing relationships of similarity and difference;

generalization - the selection of common features based on the combination of essential properties or similarities;

abstraction - highlighting any side or aspect of a phenomenon that in reality does not exist as independent ones;

concretization - abstraction from common features and emphasizing the particular, single;

systematization or classification - mental distribution of objects and phenomena into groups and subgroups.

All these operations, according to S. L. Rubinshtein, are different aspects of the main operation of thinking - mediation, i.e. revealing increasingly significant connections and relationships. Each act of thinking is a process of solving a problem that arises in the course of cognition or management activity. Its solution can be carried out in various ways, depending on the style of thinking of a person.

The style of thinking is understood as an open system of intellectual strategies, techniques, skills and operations, to which a person is predisposed due to his individual abilities (from the system of values ​​and motivation to characterological properties).

Thinking styles begin to take shape from childhood and develop throughout a person's life in accordance with the experience and metamorphoses (Greek metamorphosis - transformation, perfect, complete change) of the individual. Therefore, each person thinks within the framework of the style that has developed in his life, and only creative individuals try to improve it, modify it, learn new ways of thinking. For absolute "devotion" to one style of thinking inevitably entails a complete disregard for other styles, the transfer of a dismissive and even negative attitude to those people who think differently.

Individual differences in thinking turned out to be so diverse, depending on a huge number of factors (the reason, the driving force of the ongoing process), that scientists have so far been unable to bring them to a common denominator. Many dozens of approaches and theories of cognitive or cognitive styles continue to be the subject of scientific discussion. Here are presented only the characteristics of thinking styles, set out in the concept of A. Harrison and R. Bramson, and then interpreted by Russian scientists A. A. Alekseev and L. A. Gromova. This is because the other two basic theories are quite difficult for non-professionals to apply. This is about concepts of literal thinking, which is rooted in the theory of functional asymmetry of the brain 12 . It states that normal thinking is provided by continuous interaction and pair work of the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Second concept belongs to the American psychologist R. Sternberg, who put forward the theory of intellectual styles understood as a kind of interface (English interface - a system of unified connections and signals) between intelligence and personality. This author's research contains 13 intellectual micro-styles (legislative, executive, evaluative, monarchical, anarchist, etc.), which in combination can create many other styles, have a large set of situational tests. Among Russian specialists in the field of psychology and psychodiagnostics, this concept is used quite rarely due to its heaviness.

A. Harrison and R. Bramson, based on the views of the methodologist on the theory of W. Churchman, identified five styles of thinking: synthesizer, idealist, pragmatist, analyst, realist. Within the framework of this concept, a fairly simple questionnaire was developed for diagnosing thinking styles, which can be used by any person striving for self-development and creativity.

Domestic research on intellectual activity is represented by the works of E. A. Klimov, I. M. Paley, B. M. Teplov, G. S. Sukhobovskaya, A. A. Alekseev, L. A. Gromova. It is on the interpretation of the last two authors that a brief description of the styles of thinking is made.

Synthetic style. Synthesis (Greek synthesis - connection, combination, compilation) is the process of practical or mental construction from various elements, parts or sides of an object of a single whole (system).

To synthesize means to create something qualitatively new and original from things or ideas, an unusual creative combination, following the well-known formula: "thesis - antithesis - synthesis".

People with the skills of a synthetic style of thinking consciously and openly rely on theory in their conclusions and decisions, have an increased interest in contradictions in the reasoning of others, and are able to distinguish and identify disagreements. They are prone to change, accept the rapidly changing world as it is. There are quite a lot of talented people among them, creative individuals with a heightened sense of the new. Such people like to do things in a big way - or not to do them at all.

Idealistic style. An idealist (fr. idealiste - a person who idealizes reality, a dreamer) always has a broad view of things, events, phenomena. To some extent, idealists are holists (Greek holos - the whole, the whole; the methodological principle of integrity, expressed in the formula "the whole is greater than the sum of the parts"), prone to intuitive, global assessments without relying on problem analysis and formal logic.

Their increased interest in goals, human values, needs, motives allows them to take into account more than others and focus in their decisions on subjective and social factors.

The idealistic style of thinking is especially productive in the sphere of human relations, when such people easily and freely perceive the most diverse, sometimes even fantastic ideas and proposals. They try to assimilate them and dress them in "attractive clothes" in order to rally others, settle disputes and disagreements. They like it when they are perceived as experts, trust them, consult with them. Although such people are not even aware how much their lofty ideals and moral standards often diverge from everyday reality.

Pragmatic style. Pragmatism (gr. pragma - deed, action) has always proceeded from the premise that the true is not that which corresponds to objective reality, but that which gives practically useful results. Only personal practical experience, pragmatists believe, gives a certain level of freedom for experimentation and innovation.

The pragmatic style of thinking stands out because it has almost no high standards, clear logical patterns, or love of novelty. But the speed of achieving the goal is unusually high even when using the means, the information that is at hand.

Pragmatists are of the opinion that the world is unpredictable, changes in it are hardly predictable, and a chain of accidents forces us to make certain decisions. The intuition of such people is developed so well that they feel possible changes and conjuncture for a long time and are always ready to join the process of collective thinking and decision-making. For the most part, this is still a style of thinking based on the positions of optimism, taking advantage of any situation, even an unfavorable one.

People with this style of thinking are sociable, have a flexible adaptive approach, seek the understanding and approval of others.

Analytical style. Analysis (Greek analysis - decomposition, dismemberment) is an operation directly opposite to synthesis. Representatives of the analytical style of thinking are distinguished by a logical, methodical, detailed, and at the same time cautious manner of solving problems. Decision-making is always accompanied by the collection of versatile information, careful consideration of details and consequences. They value knowledge, strive for learning, are familiar with many theories that they try to put into practice. The picture of the world suits them more as a logical, orderly, as predictable as possible. Such aspirations make them competent people who are valued for their objectivity and application of the best methods to achieve the goal.

Realistic style. Realism (Late Latin realis - real). People with this style of thinking always try to take into account the conditions of reality in their activities. In everyday speech, the terms "realistic" and "pragmatic" are often used interchangeably, although the history of philosophy shows a sufficient difference between them. People with both styles of thinking rely on different initial assumptions and values, and their thinking strategies are fundamentally different.

Realists are empiricists, not theorists. They consider real only what can be touched, directly felt, seen, heard, etc. Unlike pragmatists, they are not interested in the experiment, and their verified decisions will confidently lead to the achievement of the goal, although they are always ready for amendments, correction . This category of people strives to control the use and distribution of the main types of resources, they know how to work with people, although their relations are often distinguished by sharpness, peremptory judgments.

The listed styles of thinking are proposed for a better understanding of the processes that occur during the improvement of the psychology of managerial relations. Life shows that the style of thinking, although an open, replenishing system, however, this system is relatively constant, selective to external influences. There are people who are equally good at several styles of thinking, their combination. This means that life experience is organically included in the thinking style of a particular person, changes it.

At the same time, among the personnel of organizations, one can also find adherents of one style of thinking. But they always have strengths and weaknesses in both finding ways to pose problems and approaches to solving them. Knowing people's thinking styles can significantly reduce the likelihood of conflicts between them.

Understood in this way, the styles of thinking give us a more detailed picture of human activity, are available for observation and introspection, and the thinking of the individual appears as a constant dialogue that reveals various, and therefore contradictory, aspects of reality.

1. Big psychological dictionary / Ed. B. G. Meshcheryakova, V. P. Zinchenko. SPb.: Prime-EVROZNAK, M.: "OLMA - PRESS", 2004. S. 202-204.

2. Ibid. pp. 527-528.

3. Ibid. S. 310.

4. Psychology and pedagogy. Moscow; Novosibirsk. INFRA - M - NGAEiU, 2000. S. 32.

5. Ibid. – S. 64.

6. Lebedev V. I. Psychology and management. M .: Publishing house "Agropromizdat", 1990. S. 32.

7. Encyclopedia of aphorisms. In the world of wise thoughts. M.: AST, 2000.

8. Pilyaeva VV Economic and legal categories of thinking. M.: "Economics", 2002. S. 27.

9. Ibid. S. 28.

10. Rubinshtein S. L. Problems of general psychology. Moscow: Nauka, 1973.

11. Alekseev A. A. Gromova L. A. Understand me correctly. St. Petersburg: Economic school, 1993. P. 15.

12. Sprinter S., Deutsch G. Left brain, right brain / Per. from English. M.: Mir, 1983.

13. Steruberg R. J., Beyond I. Q. A triarchic theory of human intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

14. Churchman C. W. Challenge to reason. N.–Y Mc. Grow Hill, 1968.

15. Mitin A. N. Culture of power and management. Ekaterinburg, Uralvneshtorgizdat. 2001 pp. 241-245.

The success of the activity is usually correlated by abilities. Accordingly, intellectual ability is defined as an individual-peculiar property of a person, which is a condition for the success of solving a certain problem: the ability to reveal the meanings of words, build a spatial figure from given elements, identify patterns in a series of numbers and geometric images, offer many options for using a given object, find a contradiction in a problematic situations, formulate a new approach in the study of any subject area, etc.

The psychologist of intellect focuses mainly on the study of the properties of intellect and describes intellect in terms of achieving a specific goal in a particular type of cognitive activity.

There are four main aspects of the functioning of intelligence that characterize four types of intellectual abilities: convergent abilities, divergent abilities (or creativity), learning and cognitive styles. Each of the intellectual abilities is considered as a property of the intellect, derived in relation to the features of the composition and structure of individual mental experience.

1. Convergent abilities.

Convergent abilities reveal themselves in terms of the efficiency of the information processing process, primarily in terms of the correctness and speed of finding the only possible answer in accordance with the requirements of a given situation. Convergent abilities thus characterize the adaptive capabilities of individual intelligence in terms of the success of individual intellectual behavior under regulated conditions of activity.

Convergent abilities are represented by three properties of intelligence.

The level properties of intelligence characterize the achieved level of development of cognitive mental functions (verbal and non-verbal), acting as the basis for cognitive display processes (such as sensory discrimination, perception speed, operating with spatial representations, the amount of operational and long-term memory, concentration and distribution of attention, awareness of a certain subject area, vocabulary, categorical-logical abilities, etc.)

Level properties were studied mainly within the framework of the testological approach. The degree of their severity made it possible to assess the convergent abilities of the reproductive type. A typical example of the level properties of intelligence are those abilities of intellectual activity that are diagnosed using Wechsler or Amthauer intellectual scales.

Combinatorial properties of the intellect characterize the ability to identify various kinds of connections, relationships and patterns. In the broad sense of the word, this is the ability to combine elements of a problem situation and one's own knowledge in various combinations.

The idea of ​​the existence of productive forms of intellectual activity was first born within the framework of the testological approach. This type of methodology includes tests of verbal analogies, Rowan's Progressive Matrices test, text comprehension tests, as well as tests that require the subject to be able to identify the grounds for the similarity of objects.

The procedural properties of the intellect characterize the elementary processes of information processing, as well as operations, techniques and strategies of intellectual activity.

In testology, this type of properties was not taken into account at all, since test diagnostics focused solely on assessing the productive side of intellectual activity. Through research in cognitive psychology, the notion has emerged that intelligence is not a static trait, but rather acts as a dynamic information processing system.

Thus, in the diagnosis of intelligence, the emphasis began to shift to assessing how a person performs a particular task, how he solves a particular task. At the same time, the view of intelligence as a convergent ability was preserved.

In the theory of J. Piaget, the assessment of the level of development of the child's intellectual abilities was based on the degree of formation of mental operations, the psychological limit of the development of which was declared to be formal-logical methods of cognition.

In domestic psychology, mental operations and mental actions were considered as procedural properties of the intellect. An assessment of the level of intellectual development of a person was associated with the formation of analysis, synthesis and generalization operations in the process of solving a problem, as well as with the formation of basic mental actions (perceptual, mnemonic, mental) in connection with the achievement of certain cognitive goals.

2. Divergent abilities.

Divergent abilities (or creativity) is the ability to generate a wide variety of original ideas in unregulated conditions of activity. Creativity in the narrow sense of the word is divergent thinking, a distinctive feature of which is the willingness to put forward many equally correct ideas about the same object. Creativity in the broadest sense of the word is creative intellectual abilities, including the ability to bring something new into experience, the ability to generate original ideas in the conditions of solving or posing new problems, the ability to recognize gaps and contradictions, and also formulate hypotheses regarding the missing elements of the situation, the ability to refuse from stereotypical ways of thinking.

As a criterion of creativity, a complex of certain properties of intellectual activity is considered.

1) fluency (the number of ideas that arise per unit of time);

originality (the ability to produce "rare" ideas that differ from generally accepted, typical answers);

receptivity (sensitivity to unusual details, contradictions and uncertainty, as well as the willingness to flexibly and quickly switch from one idea to another);

4) metaphorical (willingness to work in a fantastic, "impossible" context, a tendency to use symbolic, associative means to express one's thoughts, as well as the ability to see the complex in the simple and, on the contrary, in the complex - simple),

Typical tasks for diagnosing creativity are the following tasks: name all possible ways to use a familiar object, name all objects that can belong to a certain class (in particular, list examples of liquids that burn), continue the metaphor (in particular, “female beauty is like autumn, she...”), make a complete image based on a simple graphic shape (for example, a circle), etc.

In most studies, when assessing creativity, as a rule, the first two indicators are taken into account: the number of ideas formulated by the subject and the degree of their rarity compared to the answers of other subjects. Over time, however, it became clear that these indicators of divergent thinking are by no means unambiguous evidence of the presence of creativity as a creative intellectual ability. So, behind the non-standard, or "rarity" of the answer, there can be completely different psychological phenomena: originality itself as a manifestation of the creative and productive capabilities of the subject, originality as a manifestation of personal overcompensation of intellectual failure or mental inadequacy.

It should be emphasized that the traditional indicators of divergent abilities (creativity), as a rule, very poorly predict the real creative achievements of a person in his everyday and professional activities.

2. Learnability.

The idea of ​​learning as a manifestation of the level of intellectual (mental) development arose in the context of the concept of "zone of proximal development". The zone of proximal development is understood as the process of the child's psychological development, which he goes through under the guidance of an adult (primarily a teacher who provides him with individualized pedagogical assistance).

Understanding the leading role of education in the mental development of children allowed domestic psychologists to formulate a clear position: assessing the “level of actual development” of a child’s intellect is insufficient to assess his intellectual capabilities, because the latter can manifest themselves in completely different qualitative and quantitative indicators in the zone of proximal development. The formation of new intellectual mechanisms in the zone of proximal development depends both on the nature of learning and on the creative independence of the child himself.

With a broad interpretation, learning is seen as a general ability to assimilate new knowledge and methods of activity. The main criterion for learning is "economical" thinking: the brevity of the way in the child's independent identification and formulation of certain patterns in the new educational material in the course of its assimilation.

In a narrower sense of the word, learning is the magnitude and rate of increase in the efficiency of intellectual activity under the influence of certain learning influences. At the same time, the criteria for learning are:

the amount of metered help that the child needs (from the experimenter or teacher);

the possibility of transferring acquired knowledge or methods of action to perform a similar task.

The development of learning tests is just beginning. An example is the “diagnostic) program prepared by J. Gutke and W. Wohlrab. The "Diagnostic Program" is a short-term learning test in which a 6-8 year old child is presented with a series of tasks with an increasing level of difficulty, acting as a means of training in conditions of constant feedback from the subject. The material is geometric figures, on which the child must master the action of classification and analogy.

The following characteristics of the child's intellectual activity are taken into account as indicators of learning: 1) the need for a hint; 2) the time spent on finding the principle of analogy of figures; 3) types of errors with an analysis of their sources; 4) the amount of exercise the child needs.

Calculation of indicators of learning should not, however, obscure their psychological ambiguity.

Some researchers consider it possible to speak of two types of learning, which are based on different neurophysiological mechanisms and which are associated with different ways of acquiring knowledge.

This is, firstly, explicit learning - learning is carried out on the basis of arbitrary, conscious control of information processing processes, and, secondly, implicit learning - learning is carried out involuntarily, in the conditions of gradual accumulation of information and necessary skills as new activities are mastered.

Although the mechanisms of individual differences in learning ability still remain to be explained, an important conclusion should be fixed: the real intellectual potential of the child can only be assessed after the inclusion of two factors - education (in the form of teaching, preferably high-quality and individualized) and learning (in the form of active creative amateur activity of the child himself) . It follows from this that ascertaining psychodiagnostics in relation to the psychological diagnosis and prognosis of the individual intellectual abilities of preschoolers, schoolchildren and students is, in principle, insufficient.

3. Cognitive styles

In recent decades, in the psychology of cognition, interest in the individual specifics of intellectual activity has become increasingly active, which in general terms has been designated by the term "cognitive styles".

The concept of "cognitive style" focused the attention of researchers on individual different ways of studying reality. It is quite characteristic that initially individual differences in the preferred methods of intellectual activity (styles) were fundamentally opposed to individual differences in the success of intellectual activity (abilities).

For the first time, the criteria for distinguishing styles from abilities were formulated by G. Witkin, which were then unconditionally accepted by most researchers for several decades.

Ability characterizes the level of achievements in intellectual activity (that is, it is its productive characteristic). Style acts as a way to perform intellectual activity (i.e., it is its procedural characteristic). Accordingly, different styles can provide equally high success in solving a particular problem.

Ability - unipolar measurements. Style is a bipolar dimension.

Abilities always have a value context (growth of abilities is always good). Value judgments are not applicable to stylistic phenomena, since any pole of one or another style is equivalent in terms of the possibility of effective intellectual adaptation.

Ability is time-varying (ability level changes with age, education, etc.). Style is a stable characteristic of a person, stably inherent in him at different stages of ontogenesis and in various conditions of socialization.

The ability is specific in relation to the content of a particular activity. Style manifests itself in a generalized way in various types of mental activity.

The statement that styles and abilities are alternative mental qualities can also be called into question in connection with more general considerations: firstly, the ways of processing information about one's environment in the form of certain stylistic properties of the intellect directly or indirectly affect the productivity of the intellectual behavior, secondly, styles, controlling basic cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking), thereby act as metacognitive abilities that ensure the effectiveness of self-regulation of intellectual activity, thirdly, styles, by the very fact of their presence, indicate the formation of the ability subject to an individualized form of cognitive reflection (that is, they are evidence of a sufficiently high level of his intellectual development).

The latter assumption echoes the facts, according to which typologically determined differences in the individual style of activity are observed only in subjects with a sufficiently high level of mental development.

The study of cognitive styles has gone in different directions, so now we can state the existence of four types of style properties of intelligence, such as information coding styles, cognitive styles, intellectual styles and epistemological styles.

Styles of information coding are individually unique ways of presenting information depending on the dominance of a certain modality of experience (auditory, visual, kinesthetic, sensory-emotional, etc.).

Recently, the problem of the existence of different ways of perceiving information has been actively developed in line with neurolinguistic programming (NLP). Three main areas of "sensory experience" of a person were identified: visual, auditory, kinesthetic. Accordingly, different people receive and process information about their environment, mainly based on either visual experience (visually and through mental images), or auditory experience (through hearing), or kinesthetic experience (through touch, smell and other sensory impressions). Therefore, for a visual, a typical cognitive position is to look, imagine, observe; for auditory - listen, speak, discuss; for kinesthetic - act, feel, feel.

Thus, the degree of severity in the individual representative system of one or another way of presenting information - depending on the formation of certain structures of his cognitive experience - characterizes the style of information encoding inherent in this person. According to J. Bruner, the degree of integration of different ways of encoding information characterizes the level of intellectual development.

Cognitive styles are individually peculiar ways of processing information about the current situation (methods of its perception, analysis, categorization, evaluation, etc.). In foreign and domestic literature, one can find descriptions of 15 to 20 different cognitive styles. Let's take a look at some of them.

Field dependence - field dependence. Representatives of the polydependent style trust visual impressions more when assessing what is happening and hardly overcome the visible field when it is necessary to detail and structure the situation. Representatives of the poly-independent style, on the contrary, rely on internal experience and easily tune out from the influence of the field, quickly and accurately highlighting a detail from a holistic spatial situation.

Impulsivity - reflexivity. People with an impulsive style are quick to hypothesize in alternative choice situations, and they make many mistakes in identifying perceptual objects. For people with a reflexive style, on the contrary, a slower pace of decision-making in such a situation is characteristic; accordingly, they make few mistakes in identifying preceptive objects due to their thorough preliminary analysis.

Narrow wide - range of equivalence (or analyticity - syntheticity). Representatives of the pole of a narrow range of equivalence (analytical style) tend to focus on the differences of objects, paying attention mainly to their details and distinctive features. Representatives of the pole of a wide range of equivalence (synthetic style), on the contrary, tend to focus on the similarity of objects, classifying them based on certain generalized categorical grounds.

Intolerance -- tolerance for unrealistic experience. This cognitive style reveals itself in uncertain, ambiguous situations and characterizes the degree of acceptance of impressions that do not correspond or even contradict the ideas that a person has, which he regards as correct and obvious. Tolerant subjects evaluate experiences according to their actual characteristics, while intolerant subjects resist cognitive experiences in which the input data contradicts their current knowledge.

Cognitive simplicity is complexity. Some people understand and interpret what is happening in a simplified form based on the fixation of a limited set of information (the pole of cognitive simplicity). Others, on the contrary, tend to create a multidimensional model of reality, highlighting many interrelated aspects in it (the pole of cognitive complexity).

Thus, some general conclusions can be drawn regarding the nature of cognitive styles. The fact is that as empirical data accumulated, the stylistic approach found itself in a rather difficult situation. On the one hand, the opposition between stylistic and productive aspects of intellectual activity did not stand up to rigorous empirical and theoretical testing. On the other hand, the identification of cognitive styles and convergent abilities turned out to be incorrect due to the obvious difference in the procedures for their operationalization.

In one of the works of M.A. Kholodny substantiated the point of view according to which cognitive styles are a “different” type of intellectual abilities (compared to traditional convergent and divergent abilities), characterizing, firstly, the features of constructing individual representations of what is happening and, secondly, the individual possibilities of metacognitive regulation of intellectual activities.

Intellectual styles are individually unique ways of posing and solving problems. There are three intellectual styles that are manifested in the choice of professional activity and, accordingly, in the preferred ways of solving professional problems.

Legislative style. Its representatives in their intellectual work ignore the norms and rules typical for most people. Even their own principles regarding the approach to the problem, they are ready to change at any time, depending on the requirements of the problem itself. They are not interested in details. They feel comfortable only when they have the opportunity to work within their own system of ideas and when they themselves can develop a new approach to the problem. They prefer such professions as a scientist, university professor, writer, artist, architect, entrepreneur.

Executive style People of this type are guided by generally accepted norms, tend to act according to the rules, prefer to solve pre-formulated, clearly defined problems using already known means. They choose the profession of a lawyer, accountant, military man, manager.

Appraisal style. People of this type have a certain minimum of their own rules, in the correctness of which they sincerely believe. They are focused on working with ready-made systems, which, in their opinion, can and should be “put in order” (for example, make the correct diagnosis and carry out the necessary actions). In general, they tend to analyze, criticize, evaluate and improve problems. Professionally self-determine, as a rule, as a literary critic, psychotherapist, developer of educational programs, consultant, politician, judge.

All these styles reveal themselves at the same high level of intellectual development and correlate with equally high professional success. In addition, it must be borne in mind that each person is characterized by a balance of all three styles, taking into account, of course, the specialization of each of them.

Compared to cognitive styles, intellectual styles are certainly a more generalized style property of intelligence. It is fashionable to talk about intellectual styles, as properties of individual intelligence, only against the background of a sufficiently high level of intellectual maturity of the subject.

Thus, smarter styles are a special kind of intellectual abilities associated with the possibility of individualizing intellectual activity on the basis of matching the individual resources of the subject with a certain type of problem.

epistemological styles. These are individually peculiar ways of a person's cognitive attitude to what is happening, manifested in the features of an individual "picture of the world". There are three epistemological styles: empirical, rationalistic, metaphorical.

The empirical style is a cognitive style in which a person builds his cognitive contact with the world on the basis of direct perception data and subject-practical experience. People of this type tend to confirm the truth of their judgments by reference to facts, the accuracy of measurements, the reliability and repeatability of observations.

The rationalistic style is the cognitive style of the individual, whose view of reality is determined by broad conceptual schemes, categories and "theories". The adequacy of individual judgments is evaluated on the basis of logical conclusions using the entire complex of mental operations. The main criterion for the reliability of a cognitive image is its logical stability.

Metaphorical style is a cognitive style, which manifests itself in a tendency to maximize the variety of impressions and combine certain areas of knowledge. The integrity of the view of the world is combined with its personification (i.e., the representation of reality in terms of personal experiences, assessments, and beliefs). Checking the reliability of the cognitive image is carried out by referring to one's own intuition.

According to Royce, cognitive styles are mental qualities of a higher order in the sense that they determine the way in which convergent abilities and affective personality traits are connected in acts of individual behavior. In fact, the expression of certain epistemological styles is a consequence of the formation of those mechanisms that ensure the interaction of the intellectual and affective capabilities of the subject. For example, the rational style is responsible for the integration of conceptual abilities and emotional independence, the experiential style - perceptual abilities and introversion / extraversion, the metaphorical style - symbolic abilities and emotional stability. Therefore, epistemological styles can be considered - in comparison, for example, with conversion abilities - intellectual abilities of a higher level, revealing themselves in terms of individualized integration of the cognitive and affective experience of the subject.

Thus, cognitive styles - in the severity of certain forms of information presentation (coding styles), the formation of mechanisms of involuntary intellectual control (cognitive styles), the measure of individualization of the ways of setting and solving problems (intellectual styles) or the degree of integration of cognitive and affective experience (epistemological styles). ) - are, apparently, related to the productive capabilities of the intellect and can be considered as a special kind of intellectual abilities.

It is impossible not to agree with the opinion of the outstanding psychologist H. Eysenck, who believes that a simple layman speaks of "intelligence" as often as a professional psychologist, but "the meanings invested in this concept do not always coincide, and in reality can sometimes enter into contradiction". We would like to speak with the visitors of our site “in the same language”, therefore we consider it necessary to explain to our guests what we mean by intellect and intellectual abilities.
In the "Concise Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language" by K.S. Gorbachevich, the concepts of "intellectual abilities", "mental abilities", "qualities of the mind" are designated as synonymous and it is as synonyms that are used on the pages of our site.
Many theories and a variety of approaches to the study of intelligence show that intelligence is a multifaceted complex system.
Intelligence, according to the definition of psychologist M.A. cold, - it is a form of organization of individual experience of human mental activity. She calls it mental experience. The accumulated mental experience enables a person to perform certain intellectual functions (highlight the main idea, compare objects, control needs, etc.). Intellectual abilities are individual psychological properties of a person that are a condition for the success of various types of intellectual activity. The level of development of his intellectual abilities depends on how rich the mental experience of a person is, how diverse the intellectual functions that a person can perform.
Mental abilities are the ability to use all the previously accumulated experience of one's intellectual activity. The development of intellectual abilities is carried out as the enrichment of mental experience, while increasing the quantity and quality of intellectual functions that a person can perform. An increase in the quality of intellectual functions indicates the development of existing intellectual abilities, and an increase in the number of intellectual functions indicates the emergence of new ones. It follows that the goal of teaching schoolchildren should be not only the transfer of experience accumulated by generations, but also the formation of own mental experience. Moreover, it is necessary to strive to ensure that the personal experience of students is as rich as possible.
Mental abilities include two components: productive (the ability to identify connections and relationships, come to conclusions that are not directly presented in a given situation) and reproductive (the ability to use past experience and learned information).
M.A. Kholodnaya divides all intellectual abilities into three groups: convergent and divergent abilities, learning ability.
Through the convergent abilities of a person, all the main cognitive mental processes are realized. The cumulative participation of all mental cognitive processes in the work of the intellect is proved in the following works of psychologists analyzed by M.A. Cold :

 E. Hunt, R. Sternberg believe that the nature of the general factor of human intelligence is identical to a small number of basic cognitive (cognitive) processes.

 R. Glaser, M. Chi, J. Campion believe that the characteristics of an individual knowledge base predetermine the effectiveness of individual cognitive processes (memorization, problem solving).

 B.G. Ananiev, M.D. Dvoryashina, E.I. Stepanova consider intelligence as a unity of cognitive functions of different levels (psychomotor, attention, memory and thinking).

 B.M. Velichkovsky describes intelligence as a hierarchy of cognitive processes.

Consider the components of convergent abilities. M.A. Cold convergent abilities are defined as the success of mental activity in specific situations in terms of the efficiency of information processing, primarily in terms of the correctness and speed of finding the only possible (normative) answer in regulated conditions of activity. M.A. Kholodnaya connects these abilities with mental cognitive processes, mainly with perception, memory, attention, and convergent thinking. Through the abilities of a person, his mental processes are realized. Attention is realized through attentionnye abilities, perception - through perceptual abilities, memory mnemic .
V.D. Shadrikov formulates the following definition of mnemonic abilities. “Mnemic abilities are the properties of the functional systems of the brain that regulate the functions of remembering, storing and reproducing information, which have an individual measure of severity, which manifests itself in the success and qualitative originality of the performance of an activity.” Let's compare this definition with the generally accepted definition of the concept of "memory" in psychology. Memory is a cognitive process that includes memorization, preservation, recall (remembering, reproduction), recognition and forgetting of information. In the definition of imaginary abilities V.D. Shadrikov included almost all memory functions. Proceeding from this, we believe that when determining attentional and perceptual abilities, one can rely on the definitions of attention and perception, respectively. Let's formulate them.
Mnemic abilities- these are the properties of the functional systems of the brain that regulate such memory functions as memorization, storage and reproduction of information, which have an individual measure of severity, which is manifested in the success of the activity.
Attenuation abilities- these are the properties of the functional systems of the brain that regulate such an attention function as concentration (focus) on an object, which have an individual measure of severity, which is manifested in the success of the activity.
Perceptual abilities- these are the properties of the functional systems of the brain that regulate such functions of perception as the reception and processing of information entering the brain through the senses, the formation of images of objects and phenomena in the mind, which have an individual measure of severity, which is manifested in the success of the activity.
Now consider the abilities through which convergent thinking is realized. J. Gilford divided thinking into two components: divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent thinking will be discussed below. Under convergent thinking, J. Gilford understood such thinking, which is aimed at finding the only true result and is diagnosed by traditional intelligence tests. Traditional intelligence tests refer to IQ tests. IQ tests serve to diagnose verbal, spatial and formal-logical (sign-symbolic) factors of intelligence. Analysis of the tasks of this test allows us to conclude that their performance is based on logical operations with concepts or terms (verbal intelligence), with images (spatial intelligence), with numbers (formal logical intelligence). Based on this, we conclude that the main functions of convergent thinking can be considered the performance of logical operations with terms, images and symbols.
Ability to find the only correct result- these are the properties of the functional systems of the brain that regulate such functions of convergent thinking as the performance of logical operations with terms, images and symbols, which have an individual measure of severity, which is manifested in the success of the activity.
According to M.A. Cold, divergent abilities are intellectual abilities that manifest themselves in the willingness to put forward many equally correct ideas about the same object. M.A. Kholodnaya refers creativity to divergent abilities, defined in the narrow sense of the word, as the ability to generate a wide variety of original ideas in unregulated conditions of activity.
In the broad sense of the word, creativity is defined as the ability to create (lat. creativity - creativity, the ability to create) or as the ability to transform knowledge. It is necessary to distinguish between intellectual and creative abilities. Creative activity is associated with such factors as temperamental characteristics, the ability to quickly assimilate and generate ideas (and not critically treat them). Many psychologists attribute creativity to the area of ​​the "unconscious", believing that creative acts are not controlled by consciousness. One of the main differences between creative activity and intellectual activity is that “creative solutions come at a moment of relaxation, distraction of attention, and not at a moment when attention is consciously focused on solving problems”
Creativity is basically related to the intellect. J. Gilford suggested that the basis of creativity is divergent thinking, which he defined as "a type of thinking going in different directions" [J. Guilford cit. according to Druzhinin 6, p. 164] Divergent thinking is associated with the generation of many solutions based on unambiguous data. This type of thinking allows for varying ways of solving the problem, leads to unexpected conclusions and results. Schemes of the processes of divergent and convergent thinking are given in his work by V.N. Druzhinin, analyzing the concept of S. Mednik's creative abilities. (See diagrams 1,2) These diagrams clearly reflect the considered differences between convergent and divergent thinking.

J. Gilford identified the main functions of divergent thinking:

 detecting and posing problems;

 generating a large number of diverse ideas;

 non-standard reaction to stimuli;

Based on them, we can formulate the following definition.
Ability to find multiple equally correct solutions- these are the properties of the functional systems of the brain that regulate such functions of divergent thinking as the detection and formulation of problems; generating a large number of diverse ideas; non-standard reaction to stimuli; improvement of the object, having an individual measure of severity, which is manifested in the success of the activity.
Of the mental processes associated with creative abilities, psychologists especially single out imagination. The ability through which the imagination is realized is the ability to produce new images. Let us formulate the definition of this ability.
Ability to produce new images- these are the properties of the functional systems of the brain that regulate such functions of the imagination as the representation of an absent or really non-existent object, mental manipulation of it, which have an individual measure of severity, which is manifested in the success of the activity.
We have considered such types of intellectual abilities as convergent and divergent abilities. It remains to consider learning. According to M.A. Cold, learning is a general ability to assimilate new knowledge and methods of activity. Learning as a person's ability to learn is associated with such parameters of a person's personality as cognitive processes, motivation, will, sociability, etc. With the development and formation of these personality traits, the level of learning increases.
This opinion is shared by other psychologists. Zinchenko’s psychological dictionary provides the following definition of learning: “Learning in the broad sense of the word acts as a manifestation of the general abilities of a person, reflecting the cognitive activity of the subject and his ability to assimilate new knowledge, actions, complex forms of activity. Expressing general abilities, learning, acts as a general possibility of mental development, the achievement of more generalized systems of knowledge, general methods of action.
Some psychologists distinguish between general learning ability (the ability to master any material) and special learning ability (the ability to master certain types of material: various sciences, arts, types of practical activity), paying attention to the fact that the first is an indicator of the general, and the second - the special giftedness of the individual.
There is another point of view, which is held, in particular, by the psychologist V.N. Druzhinin. “Probably,” suggests V.N. Druzhinin, “general learning as an ability does not exist, but there is learning as a system of special abilities, similar to the system of special factors of intelligence, with the only difference that the latter stands for general intelligence” . This conclusion was made by V.N. Druzhinin based on the results of experiments conducted by Cattell, which indicate that "the ability to learn various skills is determined mainly by their specificity" . On the success of training, according to V.N. Druzhinin, affect both general intelligence and attitudes, interests, motivation and many other mental properties of the individual. Intellectual ability is a prerequisite for learning. In this characteristic of learning, the point of view of V.N. Druzhinin coincides with the views of other psychologists.
In psychology, there is no consensus on the belonging of learning to intellectual abilities. However, psychologists associate learning with the work of the intellect. For the learning process of students, learning is an important personal quality of the student. Therefore, we consider learning as an intellectual ability.
Learnability- this is a general ability to assimilate new knowledge and ways of activity, associated with such parameters of a person's personality as cognitive processes, motivation, will, sociability, etc.
Psychologists distinguish between two types of learning:

 Explicit learning ability - learning is carried out very quickly, while arbitrary, conscious control of information processing processes is activated;

 implicit learning - learning is carried out slowly, in the conditions of gradual accumulation of information and gradual, not realized by a person, growth in the success of his activity.

Thus, the general structure of intellectual abilities can be represented in the form of scheme 3.

Scheme 3. The structure of intellectual abilities

It is impossible to draw a clear line between individual mental processes. This division is very conditional and the human psyche is an integrity. However, each mental process has its own characteristics, which make it possible to isolate it in the process of cognition. From this follows the need to use such teaching methods that will allow you to simultaneously develop the entire complex of intellectual abilities and monitor the development of its individual components.