Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru/
INTRODUCTION
CONCLUSION
LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
The relevance of this work is determined by the fact that for centuries Japan existed exclusively within the Japanese islands, without even going for the development of no-man's land to the north and northwest (which it formally could include in its possessions long before it appeared on the Pacific coast of Russia). However, her concept of historical perspective did not require linear spatial expansion. Expansion as a kind of activity, in principle, did not exist for the Japanese. The West brought the concept of "progress", and with it the concept of a real - and not ideal, as it was, for example, in China - the spread of the influence of their ethnic group far beyond the original area.
At the end of the XIX century. Japan began active expansion in East Asia, taking advantage of the turmoil and weakness of China and Korea, collides with Russia and defeats it. Just thirty years after the Meiji Restoration, it is the only Asian country to join the ranks of world powers. The pace is amazing. Even in the middle of the XIX century. the steam ships of the Americans that appeared on the roadstead of Nagasaki plunged the Japanese into prostration; in May 1905, in the Tsushima Strait, Admiral Togo utterly defeated the powerful squadron of Admiral Rozhdestvensky - the squadron of Russia, which by that time had already been a sea power for two full centuries. Tsushima is not just a grandiose naval battle, but also a civilizational breakthrough in Japan.
The scientific significance of this work lies in the fact that, considering the features of the modernization of the countries of the East at the end of the 19th century, one can understand the specifics of modern international relations taking place in the Asia-Pacific region.
Historiography on this issue is quite extensive. The issue related to modernization in Japan is considered more fully. The works of T.P. Grigoryeva, I.A. Latysheva, A.N. Meshcheryakov and others. The most extensive work on the history of China belongs to the researcher N.I. Konrad.
The purpose of this work is to compare the modernization processes in Japan and China at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. This goal allowed us to formulate the following objectives of this study:
1. Consider the features of the economic development of Japan in the XIX century.
2. Show the features of the cultural development of Japan.
3. Analyze the features of modernization in China.
The chronological framework of this study is the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century. The territorial framework is the territory of modern China and Japan.
The sources of this work were various literary monuments of ancient Japan and China.
1. FEATURES OF THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN IN THE 19TH CENTURY
The capitalist structure in Japan began to take shape in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In the 50-60s. profound changes took place in the domestic political life of the country. Under pressure from the USA, Russia and England in 1854, Japan was forced to abandon the policy of self-isolation and open a number of ports for foreign ships. Japan entered the world market. Started in 1867-1868. how the traditional struggle between noble families for power ended with the bourgeois Meiji revolution. The emerging bourgeoisie, impoverished, patriotic-minded samurai (knights), peasants, and the urban poor took part in this movement. The imperial army, having defeated the army of the shogun (commander), in May 1868 entered the capital of Edo (Tokyo). The government was overthrown. 15-year-old Mutsuhito (1852-1912) became Emperor of Japan.
The aggravation of social contradictions, the need for accelerated economic development, the desire to resist the colonial policy of the United States and other states forced the new government of Japan to start reforms. The main attention was paid to the development of industry, trade, the military sphere and the mastery of advanced Western technology. In order to undermine the economic base of the feudal principalities, which interfered with national unity, in 1871 the appanages were liquidated, the country was divided into provinces and prefectures, headed by an official appointed by the center, and uniform administration was established throughout the country. The cadres of officials were formed from former princes and samurai, who have now lost their independence. This was a new layer of bureaucracy, although it had no experience yet, but it was not mired in corruption and bribery and, therefore, did not interfere with the modernization of society.
The reform of 1872 established three estates in Japanese society: the highest nobility, which included former princes and the court aristocracy; the nobility, which included former samurai; class of the common people, including the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie.
In 1872-1873. a rather radical agrarian reform was carried out, which established private ownership of land. The land was assigned to those who actually owned it at the time of the reform, i.e. for wealthy peasants, although some landowners, unable to pay the ransom for land and tax, lost their plots. The vast majority of the peasantry secured insignificant land plots for themselves.
These peasants became tenants, laborers or rushed to the cities. The wealthy peasantry and the new landowners, having received land, were exempted from land rent in favor of the princes. Corvee and dues were abolished, a cash tax was introduced in the amount of 3% of the price of land, paid to the state.
Among the important transformations for Japanese society were the introduction of universal military service and the organization of the education system according to the European model. Young Japanese were given the opportunity to receive higher education in all branches of science and technology in Europe and America. There were also changes in the ideological sphere. Instead of Buddhism, Shintoism was declared the state religion, which retained the cult of the ancient deity - the goddess of the Sun, introduced the cult of Tenno as the embodiment of the highest heavenly powers. This was supposed to assert that the deity of celestial bodies who settled in Japan is evidence of the superiority of the Japanese over all mankind.
The implementation of reforms ensured the rapid development of the capitalist mode of production and the banking system.
Reforms of the 60s - 80s. showed the need for appropriate transformations in the political field, in particular, the creation of a parliamentary system. In 1889, the text of the constitution was published, which endowed the emperor with broad rights, proclaimed democratic freedoms and the rights of citizens, and their implementation opened a wide path for the intensive development of capitalism. The first Japanese parliament, which turned out to be largely independent and stubborn in making relevant decisions, met in 1890. A constitutional monarchy was created, in which the emperor was endowed with legislative initiative, the right to appoint ministers, convene and dissolve parliament, where the highest chamber was composed of members of the imperial family and persons close to the emperor, testified to the limitations of democratic institutions of power and the laws of such a process.
The rapid pace of economic, social and political modernization for a recently backward country was ensured by the labor of peasants and workers who were cruelly exploited by Japanese capital: 12-14-hour working days, low wages, political lack of rights. This was typical of the early development of capitalism in any country. However, Japan managed to quickly pass this period thanks to the emergence of the labor and trade union movement and, importantly, the planting of paternalistic traditions in Japanese society and direct contacts between employers and their workers. This led to a weakening of the workers' strike movement. And, of course, the widespread use of the achievements of science and technology, the complex of values both domestic and foreign, has borne fruit.
Thus, the process of modernization of Japanese society, which began in the middle of the 19th century, made significant changes to the traditional way of the Japanese economy.
2. FEATURES OF THE CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN
Late feudalism, covering in Japan the time from the second decade of the 17th century to the middle of the 19th century, is separated from the Muromachi period by a short but very significant Momoyama period (1573-1614) in the history of Japanese spiritual life. At this time, an end was put to long wars and centralized power was established. The end of the 16th century became the boundary not only of two political, but also of cultural epochs. The expansion of trade with different countries contributed to cities, the development of crafts, and then the expansion of ideas about the world.
Japanese art of the final stage of the Middle Ages was formed in peculiar conditions. The isolation of the country from the outside world could not but slow down the progressive pace of its development as a whole. The more significant are those artistic phenomena that, in the conditions of feudalism that is becoming obsolete, contributed to the transition to a new understanding of reality. Such phenomena in the 18th - 19th centuries were ukiyo-e engraving and the rich world of decorative arts, inexhaustible in their appeal to the surrounding life. It was they who connected the past of Japanese culture with the present, carrying through the centuries the most important criteria of beauty, understanding the properties of materials, the organic connection between art and nature, which became the basis of modern national culture.
In 1867 - 1868. The Meiji Revolution brought about the modernization of the country. The revolution overthrew the power of the shoguns from the Tokugawa house and restored the power of the emperors. A government led by Mutsuhito came to power, embarking on the path of socio-economic reforms. In 1889, a constitution was introduced that made Japan a constitutional monarchy. In 1890, the first Japanese parliament was convened.
Despite the strong influence of Chinese civilization, the Japanese managed to create their own distinctive culture. Subsequently, they deliberately fenced themselves off from the outside world and remained in complete isolation until the end of the 19th century.
Spiritual values “include worthy desires, voluntarily chosen, socially and personally useful aspirations; express such relations between people that do not separate, but unite people in communities of various levels, from the family to the state, society, humanity as a whole; are internal, non-violent, reflect the inner freedom of a person, his choice and self-determination; cannot be taken from a person by deceit, violence or coercion.
Thus, the value approach to understanding the Japanese spiritual culture provides for an emphasis on such a feature as opposition to everything negative, destructive, humiliating the human person and her right to free choice.
In the Japanese national character, the following stand out in relief:
a) common ethnic features - diligence, a highly developed aesthetic sense, love for nature, adherence to traditions, a tendency to borrow, ethnocentrism, practicality;
b) features of group behavior - discipline, devotion to authority, a sense of duty;
c) everyday life features - politeness, accuracy, self-control, thrift, self-control.
The Japanese see a meaning in everything, rooted in ancient times. On New Year's Eve, branches of pine (symbols of longevity and power), plum and bamboo (symbols of constancy and virtue) are placed near each house.
The attitude of the Japanese to the culture that came from the continent was not limited to either repulsion or blind admiration; quite often it took on the character of a competition, a dialogue that became an internal principle of Japanese culture
The Japanese phrase "let the water carry it away" echoes the Western expression "water under the bridge" (i.e.: passed and forgotten) and indicates the willingness of the Japanese to accept change as something inevitable. This does not mean at all that they easily part with the familiar and sweet. The Japanese are terribly sentimental: the most popular songs, novels and books tell of lost love, broken hearts and all the accompanying torments. And yet they embrace change, for they know deep down in their hearts that nothing lasts forever under the sun.
The Japanese are distinguished by attachment to the family, the team, and the Motherland. The traditional spiritual value of the Japanese was and remains the family. The central place in it has always been given to the mother and her relationship with the children. A mother ready for any sacrifice, grateful children are a typical phenomenon in the Land of the Rising Sun. Marriage in Japan is specific. In a Japanese city, there is a process of exteriorization of the role functions of the family. A city apartment, as it were, contributes to this process: there are no guest rooms in the apartment, there is nowhere for a man to make friends, there is nowhere to have fun. And so he goes to bars, to nightclubs, to baths. The woman, as in the old days, basically remains a housewife. Her job is to maintain order in the house, to raise children. However, today many Japanese women work on a par with men.
Evening "exits" of the male half of the population of Japan have long become an integral part of the Japanese way of life. The Japanese must take care to maintain close social contacts. Spending time drinking with your co-workers is considered essential to maintaining and strengthening good relationships at work.
Another significant spiritual value of the Japanese is labor. Japanese industriousness was brought up by the centuries-old traditions of the agricultural culture of irrigated rice, which required diligent and diligent work. The natural conditions of the island mountainous country with the constant threat of earthquakes, tsunamis, and typhoons also affected, where a person had to devote himself to work in order to survive. Depicted by some Japanese artists, bamboo bowed under the snow symbolizes the hardy, courageous, hardworking Japanese, adapting to difficulties and resisting any adversity.
The cult of ancestors, respect for old age, reverence for the elderly, sympathy for the elderly are the traditional spiritual values of the Japanese people.
The Japanese are very careful about their past, national roots, their history, they believe in the creative power of the spiritual traditions of their country.
These, in our opinion, are the most important spiritual values of traditional Japanese culture, many of which have become universal. Introducing students to the spiritual values of the Land of the Rising Sun will help bring the countries and peoples of the Asia-Pacific region closer together, strengthen their desire for peace, and solve other global problems of modern society.
3. FEATURES OF MODERNIZATION IN CHINA
From the end of the XVIII century. the capitalist powers launched an offensive against China in order to obtain markets and sources of raw materials.
Since 1839, the British launched military operations against China, which marked the beginning of the "opium wars." The feudal army could not resist the first-class armed ground forces and fleet of England, and the Qing authorities showed a complete inability to organize the defense of the country.
In August 1842, the first unequal treaty in the history of China was signed in Nanjing. This agreement opened for trade, in addition to Guangzhou, four more Chinese ports. The island of Syangan (Hong Kong) went to England. The Qing government also undertook to pay the British a huge indemnity, to liquidate the Chinese trading corporation, which had a monopoly on intermediary trade with foreigners, and to establish a new customs tariff beneficial to England.
In 1843, the Treaty of Nanjing was supplemented by a protocol, according to which foreigners were granted the right of extraterritoriality in the settlements they created, where a system of government not subordinate to the Chinese authorities was established, and foreign troops and police were kept. The local Chinese authorities in open ports were not only to allow the system of these foreign settlements, but also to allocate land and houses for them for a "fair" rent. Foreigners were completely excluded from the jurisdiction of Chinese courts, consular jurisdiction was established for them. Following England, unequal treaties with China were concluded by the United States and France (1844).
An important consequence of the Opium War was the emergence of a revolutionary situation in the country, the development of which led to a peasant uprising that shook the Qing empire. It was headed by the leaders of the secret anti-Manchu society Baimandi Hui (Society for Worshiping the Supreme Ruler). The head of the society and its ideologist was the village teacher Hong Xiuquan. The society preached equality and fraternity, for the justification of which some ideas of Christianity were used. Hong Xiuquan saw the ultimate goal of the struggle in the creation of the "Taiping tianguo" ("Heavenly Welfare State"), which is why his followers began to be called Taipings. They promoted and put into practice the ideas of egalitarian distribution, which attracted mainly disadvantaged people to the Taipings. But their ranks also included representatives of the merchant bourgeoisie and landlords, attracted by the anti-Manchu orientation of the movement.
The uprising developed successfully. In 1851, the rebels captured the Yunan district center and laid the foundations of their statehood here. The "Taiping tianguo" was proclaimed, the leader of the movement, Hong Xiuquai, received the title of the heavenly king (tian wang), and five other leaders of the movement began to be called kings (vans). Thus, as in other peasant movements, the Chinese peasants did not go further than establishing a "just" monarchy.
The Taipings paid great attention to military affairs and soon created a combat-ready army, distinguished by strict discipline. In March 1853, Taiping troops took Nanjing, the capital of China during the Ming Dynasty, which was proclaimed the capital of the "heavenly state". Shortly after this event, a document called "The Land System of the Heavenly Dynasty" was published, the meaning of which went beyond its official name - it was practically the program of an anti-feudal peasant revolution. This document provided for the distribution of land on an equal footing, the exemption of peasants from rent to landowners, the provision of equal rights for women, up to equal access to public service with men, state maintenance of the disabled, measures to combat corruption, etc.
The power of the Taipings in part of the territory of China lasted until 1864. The main reasons for its death, apart from some strategic miscalculations of the Taiping leaders and a split among them, were the intervention of the Western powers and the internal decomposition of the Taiping movement. The Taiping armies have lost their former combat effectiveness, and the Taipings as a whole have lost the broad support of the people. They were defeated under the blows of the combined troops of the Manchu dynasty and the Chinese landowners, supported by the interventionists. Nevertheless, the Taiping uprising was of great historical significance, it was the forerunner of the Chinese bourgeois-democratic revolution, the harbinger of the national liberation struggle.
The Taiping Rebellion and the Opium Wars shook Qing China. At the same time, there were no significant changes in the state system, with the exception of some transformations in the structure of state bodies.
A significant event was the establishment in 1861, after the third "opium" war, of a state body in charge of foreign affairs, called the General Office for Foreign Affairs, which was not a department for foreign affairs in the usual sense of the word. The main officials of the office worked part-time in it, were, as a rule, incompetent, which made it difficult for representatives of foreign states to negotiate with them. And yet, the appearance in the state structure of a special body for foreign affairs was a milestone, which meant the end of the centuries-old isolation of the country. In 1885, another central department appeared - the admiralty (office for naval affairs). Its organization was preceded by the destruction of the Chinese fleet during the Franco-Chinese war of 1884 - 1885, which ended with the signing of another unequal treaty and the capture of Annam by the French. However, the funds allocated for the construction of the fleet went mainly to the construction of the summer imperial palace near Beijing, and people intended for service in the fleet were also sent there. China still remained unarmed in the face of foreign aggression.
After the suppression of the Taiping uprising, the system of two governors in the provinces (military and civilian) was abolished and local power was concentrated in one hand. In the structure of the provincial administration, committees for the restoration of order that arose in the last period of the struggle against the Taiping movement, consisting of the main provincial officials, namely: the treasurer, judicial officer, salt controller and grain quartermaster, were entrenched. The governors received the right to execute, without prior sanction from above, persons convicted of belonging to secret societies aimed at overthrowing the existing system, and "open rebels and robbers."
At the same time, the Manchus, retaining their dominant position, were forced to provide the Chinese feudal lords, who saved the Qing dynasty together with foreigners, with a larger number of government posts. A characteristic feature of the formation of the state apparatus of those times was the expansion of the open sale of posts, the strengthening of the arbitrariness of officials.
The sharply increased expansion of foreign capital into China led to the capture of the most important positions in the economy by it, to the emergence of a relatively strong and rapidly developing foreign sector in the economy. The country was turning into a semi-colony of Western powers.
In the 60-80s. 19th century the first Chinese capitalist enterprises emerge. Initially, these were state-owned or state-private factories, arsenals and workshops, and then private enterprises that also operated under state control. Major officials and landlords became the leading force in the emerging national bourgeoisie. Before the national bourgeoisie, a comprador (intermediary) bourgeoisie was formed in China, acting as a force striving to preserve the anti-people and anti-national Manchu regime. The invasion of the country by foreign capital put an end to the relative isolation of the Chinese countryside and introduced China's agriculture to the world market.
The growth of national capitalism, the expansion of economic ties in the country, the emergence of major economic and cultural centers created the conditions for the formation of the Chinese nation and the development of national identity.
The defeat of China in the war with Japan (1895) and especially the imperialist division of the country intensified the activity of the patriotic forces. At the end of the XIX century. a group of intellectuals led by the publicist and philosopher Kang Yuwei, who represented the interests of the national bourgeoisie and the bourgeois landowners, had a great influence on her social life. This group advocated the modernization of the country, for the implementation of reforms with the help of the imperial power.
Emperor Guangxu, who sympathized with the reformers, appointed members of the group to government posts and, on the basis of a program report prepared by Kang Yuwei, issued 50 rather radical decrees, mostly devoted to economic and educational issues, as well as some issues of the state apparatus. This three-month period in 1898 entered the history of China under the name "one hundred days of reforms." The reforms were not implemented due to a palace coup by Empress Dowager Cixi. Emperor Guangxu was arrested, his decrees revoked, and the reformers were executed.
In 1899, China was again shaken by a popular uprising. It was the speech of the rural and urban poor in the ranks of the yihetuans ("detachments of justice and harmony"), which arose on the basis of a secret society - "a fist in the name of justice and harmony." The uprising was mainly anti-foreign in nature and continued until 1901, being reinforced by representatives of the ruling circles who flirted with a broad popular movement. The siege by the rebels of the embassy quarter in Beijing served as a pretext for the intervention in the internal affairs of China by a number of European powers, tsarist Russia and the United States. In 1900, interventionist troops occupied Beijing. The Qing court capitulated.
In 1901, the Qing representative signed the so-called "final protocol", according to which the Chinese government pledged to pay huge indemnity to the invading powers, and accepted a number of humiliating conditions that secured the final transformation of China into a semi-colony. The shameful conditions of the "final protocol" increased the general hatred of the people for the Manchu dynasty, and in order to blunt it, the Qings were forced to undertake a series of reforms.
The first practical step in a series of reforms was the reorganization of the General Chancellery for Foreign Affairs, on the basis of which, shortly after the suppression of the Yihetuan uprising, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was created on the European model. A number of sinecures were abolished at court and in the provinces. In 1903, instead of the former Ministry of Public Works, the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Trade was created, which was tasked with developing charters regulating the activities of commercial and industrial enterprises, and in every possible way promoting the flow of capital into industry and trade. In 1905, the Ministry of Police was created, which was transformed the following year into the Ministry of the Interior (civil administration). At the same time, the ministries of education, almost communications, finance, the army and law (instead of the ministry of criminal punishments) were created. In 1906, the Main Customs Administration was established. The judiciary is separated from the administration. The judicial system was composed of the Supreme Court of Justice, higher courts, district courts and courts of first instance. At the same time, a prosecutor's office was established.
In 1906, a decree was promulgated to carry out preparatory measures for the transition to constitutional government. In this regard, the following year, the Qing established a bureau for drafting and reviewing the constitution, as well as a bureau for legislative reform, which concentrated its efforts on the preparation of codes. On August 1, 1908, a document entitled "The Basic Program of the Constitution" was published. Emphasizing the inviolability of imperial power, the unlimitedness of its rights in all areas of political life, this document mentioned, at the same time, the forthcoming creation of a representative institution - a parliament, albeit with very limited advisory functions.
After the suppression of the Yihetuan uprising, the number of underground revolutionary organizations continued to grow, and the spontaneous uprisings of the peasants did not stop. In 1905, the revolutionary organizations of the country united into the Allied League (Tongmyn Hui), the core of which was the Society for the Revival of China. The program of the Allied League was three principles developed by the great Chinese revolutionary Sun Yat-sen: nationalism (the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the restoration of China's independence), democracy (the establishment of a republic) and the people's welfare (implementation of egalitarian land tenure).
1906--1908 were a period of revolutionary upsurge during which the Allied League increased its influence among the masses. Soldiers and officers of the new, that is, European-trained, troops were involved in the revolutionary movement. The revolution began with an uprising of revolutionary soldiers and officers in Wuchang in October 1911. The uprising quickly spread to all the provinces of South and Central China. In the north of the country, which was less developed industrially, power remained in the hands of the Qing government. The Qing turned for help to General Yuan Shikai, the former governor of Zhili Capital Province, an unscrupulous politician and careerist who was out of work at the time. Yuan Shikai was appointed commander-in-chief of all the imperial armed forces, and in early November became the prime minister of the imperial government.
At the same time, a provisional revolutionary government was formed in the south, and in December 1911, at a conference of representatives of 17 revolutionary provinces, Sun Yat-sen, who had returned to China from exile, was elected provisional president of the republic.
As a result of a series of political maneuvers, a compromise was reached, the final of which was the abdication of the Qing. However, Sun Yat-sen was forced to cede the presidency to Yuan Shikai.
On March 10, 1912, the assembly of provincial representatives, which declared itself the National Assembly, adopted the Provisional Constitution of the Republic proposed by Sun Yat-sen. For semi-feudal China, this constitution was a progressive document. It proclaimed the principles of equality of the entire population and inviolability of the individual, freedom of assembly, press, religion, secrecy of correspondence, the right to complain about the actions of officials, etc. The Constitution provided for a parliament consisting of a lower house and a senate as the highest legislative body. Sun Yat-sen believed that the constitution would limit the dictatorial encroachments of Yuan Shikai. However, this calculation was not justified.
In the parliamentary elections in December 1912 - February 1913. most of the seats went to the Kuomintang (National Party), created as a result of the transformation of the Allied League. The leader of the new party, Song Jiaoren, was preparing to become prime minister.
In order to nullify the influence of Parliament. Yuan Shikai resorted to political terror. On his orders, Song Jiaoren was assassinated three weeks before the opening of parliament. Yuan Shikai ignored the opinion of the parliament on the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy. At the same time, he sought support from foreign powers, even at the cost of national betrayal. Therefore, in May 1913, Sun Yat-sen called on the people and troops of the southern provinces to overthrow the dictatorship of Yuan Shikai. The anti-Yuanshikai uprising began in the same year, but was defeated. Sun Yat-sen was again forced to leave the country.
Yuan Shikai, having suppressed the rebellion, took measures to strengthen his personal power. Through threats and bribery. He pushed through parliament his candidacy as permanent president. Parliament was dissolved, and on May 14, 1914, a new Provisional Constitution was proclaimed, giving the president dictatorial powers. The Cabinet of Ministers became responsible not to the Parliament, but to the President. Many democratic institutions were abolished. At the end of 1915, the restoration of the monarchy was officially announced. On the eve of this act, the dictator accepted the so-called "21 demands" of Japan, aimed at turning China into a Japanese colony. All this increased opposition to Yuan Shikai's dictatorship. A new anti-Yuanshikai uprising began in the south.
The dictator was forced to make a statement about the rejection of the monarchy, but this did not stop the uprising. Soon after the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, power fell into the hands of the North Chinese militarists-generals, who established a military dictatorship in the territories subject to them. But the revolutionary South did not recognize the authority of the northern generals. In September 1917, in Guangzhou (Canton), a military government was formed to defend the republic, headed by Sun Yat-sen. The October Revolution in Russia gave new impetus to the struggle of the Chinese people for national liberation and social justice.
In China, she responded with the "May 4th Movement", which marked the beginning of a new stage in the liberation struggle. On May 4, 1919, crowded demonstrations took place in Beijing against the policy of the capitalist powers towards China and, in particular, against the decision of the Paris Peace Conference, which authorized the seizure of Shandong province by Japan.
In 1921, the Communist Party of China was established with the help of the Comintern. In order to unite all the anti-imperialist forces of the country, the communists in 1923 decided to join the party of Sun Yat-sen (the revived Kuomintang) on the condition that organizational and ideological independence be preserved. This entry was formalized in January 1924 at the First Congress of the Kuomintang, which thus became the organizational form of the united national anti-imperialist front.
Under the influence of the ideas of the revolution in Russia, Sun Yat-sen's views underwent significant changes and acquired a clear anti-imperialist orientation. Under these conditions, Sun Yat-sen's "three principles of the people" were also subjected to a new interpretation. Thus, the "principle of nationalism" began to express the idea of struggle for the overthrow of foreign domination in China and for the equality of all the nationalities of the country. The "Principle of People's Power" contained criticism of Western-type democracy, proclaiming "the rule of the people by the whole people, and not just by a minority." In addition to equalizing rights to land, the "principle of people's well-being included demands for state assistance to the unemployed, improvement of working conditions, protection of workers' organizations and limitation of the power of capital. The "Three People's Principles" in their new interpretation were the basis of the political program of the Kuomintang, adopted by the 1st Congress.
In April 1924, Sun Yat-sen came up with the "General Program for the Construction of the State", in which he outlined his constitutional views, expressed in the ideas of "three periods" and "five powers." He divided the construction of the state into three periods: military rule, political guardianship and constitutional rule. In the first of these periods, according to Sun Yat-sen, all state institutions should be controlled by the military administration, while military force was to be used to unify the country. During the period of political guardianship, the population, under the leadership of the government, organizes self-government. Constitutional government comes with the organization of self-government in all counties of the country by the creation of a government of "five powers", followed by the convocation of the National Assembly.
Putting forward the idea of "five powers", Sun Yat-sen advocated the principle of separation of powers, but at the same time he added examination and control powers to the legislative, executive and judicial powers. He did not associate the introduction of these types of authorities only with the Chinese tradition - the system of examinations for entering the civil service and the institution of the censorship. He believed that the examination system "fills in the gaps inherent in the electoral system" for the selection of the most deserving candidates for public office.
Meanwhile, China remained politically fragmented, and most of its territory was under the rule of the military. Beijing was considered the central government of China, with which foreign states maintained diplomatic relations. From time to time they convened (separately from the South) parliaments, carried out various constitutional maneuvers (for example, the Zhili clique in 1922 restored the Constitution of 1912, which had been canceled by Yuan Shikai, and in 1923 the first Permanent Constitution of the Republic of China was even adopted, canceled already in 1924, etc.).
The year of Sun Yat-sen's death (1925) marks the first attempt to put into practice the state-building plan he developed in the relatively limited territory of the country, which was under the rule of the Kuomintang government in Guangzhou. There, on July 1, 1925, the "Organic Law of the National Government" was drafted and adopted, patronized by the party, which, according to Sun Yat-sen's scheme, was to function in two stages: military rule and political tutelage.
In 1926, the revolutionary forces of the South began their campaign against the Northern militarists. The campaign ended with the victory of the southerners and the capture of Beijing. However, in 1927 the Kuomintang broke with the Communist Party. Chiang Kai-shek, who became the de facto leader of the Kuomintang after the death of Sun Yat-sen, carried out an anti-communist coup on April 22. The communists were forced to retreat to the remote countryside, where they continued the struggle under their slogans and banners. But this was already a struggle against the government of Chiang Kai-shek, which united most of the country's territory under its rule.
The closure of the borders caused great damage to China. The society was cut off from world scientific, technical and social achievements. Under these conditions, China became an easy prey for the Western powers. In 1839-1844. and 1856-1860. after the so-called "opium" wars unleashed by the United States, Britain and France, the Chinese government signed a number of treaties granting these countries great privileges. The Taiping Rebellion further weakened China's position. In the most difficult conditions of feudal relations in agriculture, the competitive struggle with foreign capital, the national bourgeoisie fought its way through. However, the Chinese bourgeoisie could not resist the Western countries. In the war of 1884-1885. with France, China was defeated. In 1894, Japan launched a war against China. According to the Shimonoseki Treaty, China lost Taiwan, the Penghuledao Islands and had to pay a large indemnity. The defeat of China led to the intensification of the colonialist policy of the imperialist states in China. By the end of the XIX century. China was a semi-colonial country.
Thus, the process of modernization in China was quite successful, affecting all spheres of public consciousness.
CONCLUSION
japan reform china revolution
East and West interact more and more, assimilating the values of the opposite civilization, as evidenced by the process of modernization of a number of Eastern countries and at the same time, the increasing penetration of the traditional spiritual values of the East into Western culture. It can be stated with a certain degree of certainty that this process is based on the accelerating internationalization of economic, political, and cultural life. But still, it should be stated that neither Western nor Eastern civilizations have yet developed a panacea for the global crisis that threatens all of humanity.
The process of economic modernization in Japan was much faster than in China. Although, even when the unfinished bourgeois revolution of 1867-1869, known as "Meiji Isin" - "Meiji Restoration", led to fundamental changes in the field of economy, politics, culture, followed by significant changes in the system of social relations, national psychology The Japanese have changed very little. As before, the character of the Japanese was dominated by traits that developed during the era of Japan's isolation, in a closed, strictly ritualized class society: diligence, organization, readiness for unconditional submission, perseverance, endurance, undemanding and modesty in relation to living conditions, etc. On the other hand, the process of economic modernization in China, which was slower than in Japan, changed the characteristics of the Chinese more significantly.
Japan, having completed the Meiji restoration, retained the traditional system of power and management (authoritarianism in the economy), borrowing from the West, in fact, only one thing: the concept of "progress". "Progress" is an extremely broad concept, but it still has a core, namely, linear development based on the unlimited improvement of science and technology. In Japan, this resulted in two processes: borrowing the scientific and technological achievements of the West and the birth of the idea of Japan's expansion.
China, on the other hand, has completely rebuilt its economic model, bringing it in line with Western models.
LITERATURE
1. Grigoryeva T.P. Japanese artistic tradition. - M., 1979.
2. Konrad N.I. Selected works. Sinology. - M., 1977.
3. Korolev S.I. Issues of ethnopsychology in the works of foreign authors. - M., 1970.
4. Latyshev I.A. Japan today. - M., 1976.
5. Meshcheryakov A.N. Ancient Japan: Culture and Text. - M., 1991.
6. Ovchinnikov V.V. Sakura branch. - M., 1975.
7. Pronnikov V.A., Ladanov I.D. Japanese (ethnopsychological essays). - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Publishing house "ViM", 1996.
8. Japan: myths and reality. - M.: VL RAN, 1999.
Hosted on Allbest.ru
...Similar Documents
Dissatisfaction with the policies pursued by the Qing. Popular unrest in China at the beginning of the 19th century, organized by secret societies. Opium trade, the First and Second Opium Wars, their causes and consequences for Chinese society, the course of hostilities.
abstract, added 02/03/2012
The Meiji Restoration and the Role of the Samurai in the Restoration of the Emperor's Power. Reforms of the Meiji Isin period and their impact on the position of the samurai. The rise of Saigo Takamori. Samurai in the new system of Japan. The role of samurai in the activities of the armed forces of Japan.
thesis, added 08/05/2011
The study of the main features of the state and legal structure in Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Characteristics of the development of the public economy after the reform of 1861. Descriptions of the first bourgeois-democratic revolution in the country and its significance.
term paper, added 10/30/2012
Background and course of the Meiji revolution. The power of the emperor and shogun. Sanshoku government. The emergence of the first bourgeois political party in Japan, Jiyuto. Land tax reform and issuance of land title certificates (tiken).
term paper, added 06/10/2008
Territory and population growth of China at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. The rapid growth of the population as a cause of exacerbation of social contradictions. The First Opium War and the Taiping Rebellion. Strengthening and expanding the economic and political positions of the powers in China.
presentation, added 12/01/2014
The formation of the colonial system, its features in the countries of the East: China, India, Japan, Iran. Expansion of Europe to the East, its stages and objects. specifics of French colonialism. Characteristics of the colonial system and forms of the liberation war.
abstract, added 02/09/2011
The political structure of Japan in the works of Russian historians of the pre-revolutionary period. The political aspect of the initial period of the Meiji era 1868-70. Liberal Opposition in Japan. 1880s transformations Political development of the country in 1889-1912.
thesis, added 11/10/2015
Institutional transformations in China: essence, background, features, causes. The essence of socialism with "Chinese characteristics". Problems of post-reformist development and modernization of the country. China in world politics: resources, goals, prospects.
thesis, added 06/02/2010
At the turn of the 18-19 centuries. Western powers are trying to penetrate the Chinese market for the opium trade. On the basis of this, the first "opium" war began between England and China, after which China was forced to open its ports for trade with the West.
abstract, added 12/27/2008
Social development of China on the eve of the First Opium War. England unleashing hostilities in China. Anglo-Chinese negotiations in Guangzhou. Armed performance of the Guangdong against the British on May 30-31, 1841 and the development of the patriotic movement.
China and Japan in the 19th century
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | China and Japan in the 19th century |
| Rubric (thematic category) | State |
The beginning of China's transformation into a dependent country.
The second period of modern history was marked by the offensive of the Western powers on China, the struggle of these powers for its ʼʼdiscoveryʼʼ. The decisive role in the "discovery" of China belonged to England. It sought to turn the whole world into its market and source of raw materials, breaking the resistance of the peoples by force of arms. A product was found that could be used to extort money from China. It was opium. From the end of the eighteenth century it began to be imported into China in large quantities. The Manchu emperor issued decrees prohibiting smoking and importing opium. But the British switched to smuggling. In India, they forced peasants to grow opium poppy, processed it and transported it to China. Opium has become a real disaster for the Chinese.
In March 1839 ᴦ. in the port of Canton, through which all the trade in opium went, the envoy of the emperor arrived. He was tasked with eradicating the smuggling trade in opium. He surrounded the English settlement with troops and announced that not a single Englishman would be released from Canton until the entire stock of opium had been surrendered. The British had to give in. To intimidate the British, several Chinese smugglers were executed. In September English warships arrived in Canton to protect the smugglers. From 1840 to 1842 ᴦ. The Opium War continued. China was forced to open five ports to foreign trade. The treaty formalized the capture by the British of the island of Hong Kong, which was transferred to the "perpetual possession" of England, which turned it into its main naval base in the Pacific Ocean. Opium began to be imported in even greater quantities. The British wrested a number of concessions, among them the right of extraterritoriality, i.e., the lack of jurisdiction of English subjects before Chinese courts, as well as the right to organize settlements, i.e., settlements in which the British could live, but subject to Chinese law.
Other countries followed suit. A US commissioner arrived in China with a navy. He forced China to sign in 1844 ᴦ. unequal contract.
Hosted on ref.rf
France sent a mission to China that forced China to make similar concessions. Smaller predators followed the big powers: Belgium, Sweden and Norway soon received similar rights.
China and Japan in the 19th century - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "China and Japan in the XIX century." 2017, 2018.
The development of the portrait in the 19th century was predetermined by the Great French Revolution, which contributed to the solution of new tasks in this genre. In art, a new style becomes dominant - classicism, and therefore the portrait loses the splendor and sugariness of the works of the 18th century and becomes more ....
For several centuries, the cathedral continued to stand in an unfinished state. When in 1790 Georg Forster glorified the soaring slender columns of the choir, which already in the years of its creation was considered a miracle of art, Cologne Cathedral stood in an unfinished frame, ... .
Option No. 1 Instruction for students CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING STUDENTS Grade "5": 53-54 points Grade "4": 49-52 points Grade "3": 45-48 points Grade "2": 1-44 points hour 50 min. – 2 hours. Dear student! Your attention... .
Socialist realism Neo-plasticism Purism Cubo-futurism Art... .
A physiological essay is a genre whose main purpose is a visual representation of a certain social class, its life, habitat, foundations and values. The genre of the physiological essay originated in the 30-40s of the 19th century in England and France, and later appeared in ...
response plan.
- European colonial expansion.
- India under British rule.
- China and Japan in the 19th century
Basic terms- shogunate.
Requirement.
Be sure to show the state data on the map, indicate the main colonies of the leading European states!
Answer.
European colonial expansion.
Reasons for conquest.
1. the need to provide the industry of developed countries with raw materials and fuel and the creation of markets for the sale of finished industrial products,
2. super profits,
3. new territories.
At the beginning of the New Age, the largest colonies were captured by Spain and Portugal. Spain took possession of the most extensive colonies in America - from the Missouri River in the north to the Strait of Magellan in the south, as well as the Philippines in the Pacific Ocean. Portugal received Brazil, territories on the coast of Africa and India, Indonesia.
In the 17th century Holland, England and France began colonial conquests. A fierce struggle immediately unfolded between these countries, on the one hand, and Spain and Portugal, on the other. Initially, the Dutch dominated. They took away from the Portuguese most of their colonies in Africa, India, Indonesia.
Since the 18th century primacy in colonial conquests is firmly passing to England.
France also captured part of North America, India, etc.
Africa has become easy prey for the colonizers.
The final division of Africa began in the 80s. 19th century
In 1899, the parties came to a compromise, mutually recognizing the captures of rivals. Huge lands were also seized by Belgium (Congo) and Germany. Somalia and Libya went to Italy. Only Ethiopia, after a long war with Italy, managed to defend its independence.
India under British rule.
Despite the emergence of new colonies, the possession of India remained for England one of the main foundations of her strength and prosperity.
India was conquered by the British with the help of Indian sepoy mercenaries.
The Sepoy troops were trained and armed in the English way. Sepoys enjoyed many privileges. However, with the capture of all of India by the middle of the XIX century. the British began to reckon less with the sepoys, sent them to wars outside India: to Afghanistan, Iran, Burma, China, reduced salaries, and canceled many privileges.
The discontent of the sepoys became widespread.
The last straw was the introduction in 1857 of new cartridges lubricated with beef tallow and lard. When loading a gun, the wrapper had to be torn off with your teeth, which offended the religious feelings of the Indian sepoys and Muslim sepoys, because one religion forbade eating beef, and others pork. The sepoys refused to accept new cartridges from the British, although later they easily put them into action against them.
In May 1857, three sepoy regiments rebelled. They killed the British officers, burned the barracks and moved to Delhi. The power of the Mongol emperor was proclaimed, who became the nominal head of the government.
results of the uprising.
The tactics of passive defense, the disorganization of the sepoys, the military assistance provided by the British to the princes loyal to them, saved the colonial regime. On September 13, 1857, the British launched an assault on Delhi and, after six days of bloody fighting, occupied the city. Soon the sepoy uprising was crushed.
China and Japan in the 19th century
Until the middle of the XIX century. Japan was a centralized feudal-absolutist state.
The emperor was considered the head of state, but his power was only nominal. A real military-feudal ruler since the XII century. there was a shogun (commander) - the highest official, who was the commander in chief and head of the entire apparatus of state administration, concentrating in his hands the executive, administrative and legislative power, as well as fiscal functions. The position of shogun was hereditary and was traditionally filled by representatives of the largest feudal houses. The backbone of the shogunate was the bushi estate - feudal warriors. Its highest layer was the personal vassals of the shogun, the lowest - the petty military nobility, the samurai.
Back in the Middle Ages, the government established a system of four estates with strict class regulation: - samurai; -peasants; - artisans; - merchants.
There were manufactories - cotton, silk weaving.
Under pressure from the United States and European states, the Japanese government was forced to abandon the policy of self-isolation. From 1840 to 1842 continued "opium war". China was forced to open five ports to foreign trade.
A new religious sect arose among the peasantry. It was organized by a rural teacher Hong Xiuquan. The sectarians preached to the people the ideas of Christianity, which received a new content. Hong Xiuquan was seen as a savior, the younger brother of Jesus Christ, who would lead the people to create a "kingdom of equality" on Earth.
In August 1851, the rebels took several cities. All major officials were killed. The rebels proclaimed the formation of a new state. They called it a “heavenly state” (“tianguo”), which emphasized their desire to create on Earth the kind of life that Christianity promised in heaven. Hong Xiuquan was proclaimed "king of heaven". The new state was named Taiping - "Great Prosperity".
British and French regular troops, warships of England, France and the USA fought against the Taiping peasants. In 1864 the enemy broke into Nanjing. More than 100 thousand citizens of the capital of the "heavenly state" died in the massacre.
In 1853, under the threat of force, Japan entered into a trade agreement with the United States on their terms. Soon similar treaties were signed with the European powers. There was a threat of turning the country into a semi-colony.
The tasks of the movement were formulated: to overthrow the shogunate, restore the power of the emperor and, on his behalf, carry out the necessary reforms.
§ 66: China and Japan in the 19th century
The beginning of China's transformation into a dependent country.
The second period of modern history was marked by the offensive of the Western powers on China, the struggle of these powers for its "discovery". The decisive role in the "discovery" of China belonged to England. It sought to turn the whole world into its market and source of raw materials, breaking the resistance of the peoples by force of arms. A product was found that could be used to extort money from China. It was opium. From the end of the eighteenth century it began to be imported into China in increasing quantities. The Manchu emperor issued decrees prohibiting smoking and importing opium. But the British switched to smuggling. In India, they forced peasants to grow opium poppy, processed it and transported it to China. Opium has become a real disaster for the Chinese.
In March 1839, an envoy from the emperor arrived at the port of Canton, through which all the opium trade went. He was tasked with eradicating the smuggling trade in opium. He surrounded the English settlement with troops and announced that not a single Englishman would be released from Canton until the entire supply of opium was surrendered. The British had to give in. To intimidate the British, several Chinese smugglers were executed. In September English warships arrived in Canton to protect the smugglers. From 1840 to 1842, the Opium War continued. China was forced to open five ports to foreign trade. The treaty formalized the capture by the British of the island of Hong Kong, which was transferred to the "perpetual possession" of England, which turned it into its main naval base in the Pacific Ocean. Opium began to be imported in even greater quantities. The British wrested a number of concessions, among them the right of extraterritoriality, that is, the lack of jurisdiction of English subjects before Chinese courts, as well as the right to organize settlements, that is, settlements in which the British could live, but subject to Chinese law.
Other countries followed suit. A US commissioner arrived in China with a navy. He forced China to sign an unequal treaty in 1844. France sent a mission to China that forced China to make similar concessions. Small "predators" followed the big powers: Belgium, Sweden and Norway soon received similar rights.
Taiping uprising.
The Opium War opened China to British goods. The importation of cheap fabrics destroyed Chinese handicrafts, manufactory, and domestic industry. The indemnity imposed on China, and the continued extortion of money for opium, led to the depreciation of money. Popular indignation more and more often resulted in uprisings, murders of officials. Revive-
The activity of secret societies under the slogans of the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty continued. South China has become a hotbed of discontent.
A new religious sect arose among the peasantry. It was organized by a rural teacher Hong Xiuquan. The sectarians preached to the people the ideas of Christianity, which received a new content. Hong Xiuquan was seen as a savior, the younger brother of Jesus Christ, who would lead the people to create a "kingdom of equality" on Earth.
In August 1851, the rebels took several cities. All major officials were killed. The rebels proclaimed the formation of a new state. They called it a “heavenly state” (“tianguo”), which emphasized their desire to create on Earth the kind of life that Christianity promised in heaven. Hong Xiuquan was proclaimed "king of heaven". The new state was named Taiping - "Great Prosperity". This word also refers to the whole movement that shook China for a decade and a half. The Taipings moved down the Yangtze and took Nanjing, which became the capital of the "heavenly state". The Taiping's target was Beijing. During the campaign, 26 cities were taken. At the end of October 1853, detachments of the Taiping army approached Beijing. It seemed that the Manchu dynasty was living out its last days.
The order introduced by the Taipings was in stark contrast to the order in the Qin Empire. Landlord and monastic property was liquidated. In 1853, an equal distribution of land was established according to the number of eaters in the family. Peasants united in communities consisting of 25 families. Each community was required to jointly cultivate the land. Craftsmen were attached to the community. The Taipings sought to destroy money and trade, to carry out not only the division of the land equally, but also the equalization of people's consumption. All surplus products were to be delivered to public warehouses. Rations were issued in the cities. All citizens of the Taiping state had to work.
The Taipings exterminated feudal lords, rulers and dignitaries, liquidated the old army, abolished class division, and abolished slavery. The Taiping state was built on a military basis. Each family had to give one private. The Taiping community was a grassroots administrative unit and at the same time made up a platoon.
The Taiping banned the smoking of opium. For the first time in Chinese history, they introduced smallpox vaccination. Previously, the Chinese walked with shaved foreheads and braids on top - this was forced by their enslavers - the Manchus. The Taipings cut off their braids and let their hair down. Children were required to attend schools.
The Taiping army failed to take Beijing, but the Taipings entrenched themselves in Central China. In 1854 they suffered several defeats. The territory of the Taipings began to narrow under the blows of opponents. A split began in the Taiping state itself. The British helped the Manchus by providing their ships to transport troops and weapons. Later they took a direct part in hostilities. English and French regular troops, warships of England, France and the USA fought against the Taiping peasants. In 1864, the enemy broke into Nanjing. More than 100 thousand citizens of the capital of the "heavenly state" died in the massacre.
The final enslavement of China.
In 1899, a new popular uprising of "Boxers" (Yihetuans) began against the Manchu dynasty and foreigners. The troops of many states participated in its suppression. In 1901, China signed the so-called final protocol with the envoys of 11 powers. He imposed a huge indemnity on China. Its payment was provided by the most important revenues of the empire, which came under the control of these powers. The protocol prohibited the import of weapons into China. Foreigners were given a special quarter in Beijing, where each embassy could have its own military guards with machine guns and guns. The protocol obligated the Chinese government to punish by death any act against foreigners. China finally became a semi-colony of the leading powers, which divided it into spheres of their influence.
Shogunate regime in Japan.
In the first half of the XIX century. aggravated the situation of the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan. The despotism of the shogunal power, the estate system, the guild regulation - all this hindered the development of the country. The famine of 1833-1837 claimed 1 million lives. There were also uprisings. Attempts at reform to strengthen the power of the shogun caused only discontent. Along with the speeches of the people, the opposition at the top is also becoming more active. One of the manifestations of the political crisis of the Tokugawa regime was the apparent failure of the "closure" of Japan. The rulers of the coastal regions established smuggling links with foreigners sailing off the coast of Japan. The influence of European culture grew.
Meiji reforms and their consequences.
By the middle of the XIX century. in the Far East, the expansion of Western countries, primarily the United States, intensified. In 1854, the United States, threatening war, concluded a number of agreements with Japan, according to which they achieved the opening of two ports for foreign ships. Unequal treaties were signed granting privileges to the United States. Then the same treaties were concluded by England, France, Russia and a number of other countries.
The "opening" of Japan worsened the position of the shogunate. Large sums were spent on the purchase of Western weapons and warships. The introduction of foreign factory goods undermined the Japanese manufacturing and domestic industries and handicrafts.
The shogunate was opposed by peasants, commercial and industrial circles and the lower nobility. In 1862, the rulers of some southern clans, more economically developed, sent armed samurai detachments to the emperor's residence to protect it from the shogun. The imperial court in Kyoto demanded from the shogunate the expulsion of foreigners. In 1867, Mutsuhito became emperor, on whose behalf the leaders of the southern regions actually acted. Representatives of the anti-shogun opposition presented the shogun with a memorandum demanding that he "return" power to the emperor. Hostilities began; the shogun's troops were defeated. After some time, the shogunate finally ceased to exist.
The period of Mutsuhito's reign was called Meiji - "enlightened rule". In 1868, the emperor laid out a new program: all important matters would be decided on the basis of public opinion; everyone should be concerned about the prosperity of the nation; all bad customs are abolished, justice will be observed; knowledge will be borrowed all over the world.
The Meiji reforms marked the first important step in the transformation of the Japanese feudal monarchy into a bourgeois monarchy. Having embarked on the path of independent capitalist development, Japan very soon began to carry out colonial expansion in Asia. At the same time, it skillfully used the contradictions between other powers. Thus, the United States hoped, with the help of Japan, to create conditions for the penetration of American capital into Korea and Taiwan. In 1874, with the active participation of the Americans, Japan landed its troops on Taiwan. In 1876, under the threat of war, Japan imposed an unequal treaty on Korea, and from that moment the Japanese colonialists began to penetrate there.
The capitalist structure in Japan began to take shape in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In the 50-60s. profound changes took place in the domestic political life of the country. Under pressure from the USA, Russia and England in 1854, Japan was forced to abandon the policy of self-isolation and open a number of ports for foreign ships. Japan entered the world market. Started in 1867-1868. how the traditional struggle between noble families for power ended with the bourgeois Meiji revolution. The emerging bourgeoisie, impoverished, patriotic-minded samurai (knights), peasants, and the urban poor took part in this movement. The imperial army, having defeated the army of the shogun (commander), in May 1868 entered the capital of Edo (Tokyo). The government was overthrown. 15-year-old Mutsuhito (1852-1912) became Emperor of Japan.
The aggravation of social contradictions, the need for accelerated economic development, the desire to resist the colonial policy of the United States and other states forced the new government of Japan to start reforms. The main attention was paid to the development of industry, trade, the military sphere and the mastery of advanced Western technology. In order to undermine the economic base of the feudal principalities, which interfered with national unity, in 1871 the appanages were liquidated, the country was divided into provinces and prefectures, headed by an official appointed by the center, and uniform administration was established throughout the country. The cadres of officials were formed from former princes and samurai, who have now lost their independence. This was a new layer of bureaucracy, although it had no experience yet, but it was not mired in corruption and bribery and, therefore, did not interfere with the modernization of society.
The reform of 1872 established three estates in Japanese society: the highest nobility, which included former princes and the court aristocracy; the nobility, which included former samurai; class of the common people, including the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie.
In 1872-1873. a rather radical agrarian reform was carried out, which established private ownership of land. The land was assigned to those who actually owned it at the time of the reform, i.e. for wealthy peasants, although some landowners, unable to pay the ransom for land and tax, lost their plots. The vast majority of the peasantry secured insignificant land plots for themselves.
These peasants became tenants, laborers or rushed to the cities. The wealthy peasantry and the new landowners, having received land, were exempted from land rent in favor of the princes. Corvee and dues were abolished, a cash tax was introduced in the amount of 3% of the price of land, paid to the state.
Among the important transformations for Japanese society were the introduction of universal military service and the organization of the education system according to the European model. Young Japanese were given the opportunity to receive higher education in all branches of science and technology in Europe and America. There were also changes in the ideological sphere. Instead of Buddhism, Shintoism was declared the state religion, which retained the cult of the ancient deity - the goddess of the Sun, introduced the cult of Tenno as the embodiment of the highest heavenly powers. This was supposed to assert that the deity of celestial bodies who settled in Japan is evidence of the superiority of the Japanese over all mankind.
The implementation of reforms ensured the rapid development of the capitalist mode of production and the banking system.
Reforms of the 60s - 80s. showed the need for appropriate transformations in the political field, in particular, the creation of a parliamentary system. In 1889, the text of the constitution was published, which endowed the emperor with broad rights, proclaimed democratic freedoms and the rights of citizens, and their implementation opened a wide path for the intensive development of capitalism. The first Japanese parliament, which turned out to be largely independent and stubborn in making relevant decisions, met in 1890. A constitutional monarchy was created, in which the emperor was endowed with legislative initiative, the right to appoint ministers, convene and dissolve parliament, where the highest chamber was composed of members of the imperial family and persons close to the emperor, testified to the limitations of democratic institutions of power and the laws of such a process.
The rapid pace of economic, social and political modernization for a recently backward country was ensured by the labor of peasants and workers who were cruelly exploited by Japanese capital: 12-14-hour working days, low wages, political lack of rights. This was typical of the early development of capitalism in any country. However, Japan managed to quickly pass this period thanks to the emergence of the labor and trade union movement and, importantly, the planting of paternalistic traditions in Japanese society and direct contacts between employers and their workers. This led to a weakening of the workers' strike movement. And, of course, the widespread use of the achievements of science and technology, the complex of values both domestic and foreign, has borne fruit.
Thus, the process of modernization of Japanese society, which began in the middle of the 19th century, made significant changes to the traditional way of the Japanese economy.
Loading...