Reasons for the success of the Mongol-Tatars

What are the successes of the Mongol-Tatars at the beginning of the conquest of Russia? Why did the nomads, who were significantly inferior to the conquered peoples of Asia and Europe in economic and cultural development, subjugate them to their power for almost three centuries?

One of the reasons is the feudal fragmentation in Russia and the weak interstate ties between the countries of Asia and Europe, which did not allow uniting their forces to repulse the aggression of the conquerors.

The next reason is the numerical superiority of the conquerors. Batu moved 120-140 thousand of his soldiers to Russia. All Russia (even if it united) could put up only about 100 thousand soldiers.

And one more circumstance - the military. The small number of cavalry detachments, the absence of a professional army, the defensive tactics of the Russian troops, the tactics of exhausting the enemy. However, the wooden fortresses of the Russians could not withstand the continuous assault of the Mongol-Tatar troops. High-quality intelligence before the start of hostilities. Russian betrayal. In addition, the Mongol commanders did not personally participate in the battles, but led the battle from their headquarters, which, as a rule, was in a high place. The Russian princes, up to Vasily II, themselves directly participated in the battles. Therefore, very often, in the event of even the heroic death of a prince-commander, his warriors, deprived of professional leadership, found themselves in a very difficult position.

Batu's attack on Russia in 1237 came as a complete surprise to the Russians. The Mongol-Tatar hordes undertook it in the winter, attacking the Ryazan principality. The Ryazans, on the other hand, are accustomed only to the summer and autumn raids of enemies (mainly Polovtsians). Therefore, no one expected a winter attack. What did the steppes pursue with their winter blow? The fact is that the rivers, which were a natural barrier for enemy cavalry in the summer, were covered with ice in winter and had already lost their protective functions. In addition, in Russia, stocks of food and fodder for livestock were prepared for the winter. Thus, the conquerors were already provided with fodder for their cavalry before the attack.

These were the main strategic and tactical reasons for the victories of the Mongol-Tatars at the very beginning of their conquests.

Horde yoke in Russia. Liberation

The Horde yoke in Russia lasted 240 years - from 1242 to the middle of the 15th century. Once under the rule of the Mongols, the Russian princes were forced to admit that they were vassals of the rulers of the Golden Horde. Their powers were to be approved by special letters - labels. In addition to princes, metropolitans appointed in Russia were also to receive labels. Tribute, or "exit" was also imposed on Russian lands. At first, it was collected in the form of natural requisitions, and then the calculations were made in silver.

Military service was also imposed on the Russian principalities: they were obliged to field a certain number of soldiers to participate in the campaigns of the Mongol army. To oversee the Russian lands in the cities there were khan governors - Baskaks. However, their presence on Russian lands caused such discontent that gradually by the end of the 13th century, the Baskaks had to stop their activities, and the collection of tribute was entrusted to the Russian princes. In order to accurately determine the amount of tribute, the Mongols even conducted several censuses of the taxable population in Russia. The first of these took place in 1257.

After the establishment of dependence on the Mongol Empire, the policy of the Russian princes also changed. Some of them, such as Daniil Galitsky, tried to provide armed resistance to the Horde. However, such attempts more often ended in the defeat of the Russian squads.

Thus, the Golden Horde did not establish its direct rule in Russia and did not encroach on the traditional, already established system of government of the Russian lands. The princes in Russia were only vassals of the Golden Horde khans. The low level of socio-economic and social development of the Horde state did not allow the invaders to master the country and create their own governing bodies in Russia.

To strengthen their power in Russia, the Horde khans periodically carried out invasions and raids in order to achieve an internal weakening of Russia and hinder the economic development of its territories. The Horde yoke was easier to maintain, deepening the political fragmentation of the country, inciting strife, setting the Russian princes against each other. And so far the Golden Horde khans have been able to do this.

The outcome of the struggle against the Horde was decided by the Battle of Kulikovo, which became not only a stage in the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar conquerors, but also the beginning of the formation of the Russian centralized state. It took place on September 8, 1380 on the Kulikovo field, located on the right bank of the Don at the confluence of the Nepryadva River.

The choice of the Kulikovo field for battle showed the firm determination of Dmitry Ivanovich to defend Russia at any cost. Having crossed the Don, he cut off his retreat and, as it were, challenged Mamai to a mortal battle. At the same time, the location of the Kulikovo field gave the Russian troops certain military advantages. The main one was that the flanks of the Russian army were covered by the rivers - Don and Nepryadva, which deprived the Tatar cavalry of the opportunity to use the traditional tactics - enveloping the enemy from the flanks. The dense oak forest, located on the left flank, was used by Dmitry Ivanovich to place reserves - an ambush regiment.

The speed and secrecy with which the Russian troops approached the battlefield allowed Dmitry Ivanovich to frustrate Mamai's plans to join the Lithuanian troops and the squad of the Ryazan prince Oleg, who temporarily became his ally. The Russian prince managed to force the Tatars to fight without allies.

The Tatars began the battle, attacking the Russian regiments with all their might. For several hours there was a fierce battle. Russian soldiers steadfastly withstood the blows of enemy hordes. However, in the end, those managed to break through the Russian system, and Mamai already considered himself the winner. But at this critical moment, the Russian ambush regiment located in the oak forest was brought into battle. The unexpected appearance of fresh Russian forces decided the outcome of the battle. The Tatars trembled and took to flight. For almost thirty miles, Russian soldiers pursued the fleeing enemy. Contemporaries called the Battle of Kulikovo the "Mamaev Battle", and after that Dmitry Ivanovich was called Donskoy. The events of this time are described in an outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature - "The Legend of the Mamaev Battle".

The historical significance of the victory of the Russian troops was enormous. The defeat of Mamai meant the collapse of the plans for the division of Russia. The battle on the Kulikovo field showed the possibility of victory over the Tatars and became the beginning of the liberation of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

Standing on the Ugra River 1480 The overthrow of the Horde yoke

In the middle of the 15th century, the Golden Horde broke up into a number of khanates. Nevertheless, Khan Akhmat made an attempt to restore Tatar domination in Russia. He used Lithuania's concerns about the growing independence of Russia and agreed on military assistance with King Casimir IV. Counting on it, in the summer of 1480, Khan Akhmat set out on a "great campaign" against Moscow. But when the Tatars approached the Oka River, it turned out that the crossings over it were occupied by Moscow regiments. Akhmat did not dare to accept the battle and moved along the Oka to join the troops of Casimir IV. Approaching the right bank of the Ugra River, he saw the "great Moscow army" and again did not dare to accept the battle. The troops of Casimir IV did not come to the aid of Akhmat, as they were busy repelling the attack of Ivan III's ally, the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray.

On November 11, 1480, Akhmat began a hasty retreat from the Ugra. In the lower reaches of the Volga, the returning army was attacked by the combined forces of the Nogai Tatars and the Siberian Khan Ibak. During the battle, Akhmat was killed.

The formation of the Mongol state and the Mongol conquests

1. Mongolia before the formation of the state.

2. Creation of the Mongolian state.

3. The main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.

1. Mongolia before the formation of the state

By the end of the 12th century, several large unions of Mongol tribes roamed over a vast area from the Great Wall of China to Southern Siberia, from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to the Amur.

Ethnonym " Mongol" in the shape of « mengu", "mengu-mo", "mengu-wa" - first found in the Chinese chronicles of the Tang Dynasty. So the Chinese called a group of "barbarians" (all the steppe peoples) who roamed their northern borders, which obviously reflected their self-name. The Chinese called the northern Mongolian tribes "black" Tatars , and the nomads adjacent to the Great Wall of China "White" Tatars . There is also such a concept as "wild" Tatars, applicable to peoples engaged in hunting and fishing and living in the most remote northern regions of Mongolia. From this it can be assumed that during this period the Tatars dominated the steppe. The steppe peoples included nomads three tribes (Manchu, Mongolian, Turkic), but all these nomads called themselves the general concept of "Tatals", hence the "Tatars". As they moved away from China, the influence of settled peoples on nomadic peoples had a weaker effect or was completely absent.

The natural conditions of Mongolia (steppes, mountain pastures) from ancient times determined the main occupation of the Mongols - nomadic cattle breeding, that is, the Mongols - nomads nomads. In the steppes of Central Asia, nomadic pastoralism emerged from the primitive complex agricultural-cattle-breeding-hunting economy.

Chinese Chan Chun described the habitats of the Tatar-Mongol as "a giant valley, the size of which is 7-8 months of travel in length and width, ... abounding in water and grass," where people and herds "today go, tomorrow they stand, where there is water and grass." In the XI century. a long period of drought has ended. This contributed to the shift of the boundaries of the steppe zone to the south to the Gobi desert, the growth in the number of livestock and especially the population.

The main element of the Mongolian society was the clan headed by the steppe aristocracy (bagaturs, noyons 3). The clan jointly owned nomadic lands, performed religious rites. In the minds of most of the Mongols, the notion of collective responsibility for each member of the clan was stable. Joint farming and nomadism was called smoking (the camp-kuren was arranged around the yurt of the tribal elder and could number up to a thousand wagons, i.e. families)

Natives of the clan, who did not want to accept the rules of behavior and life within the team, became "people of long will." These people united in organized detachments under the leadership of military leaders. "People of long will" along with the Mongolian clans were a powerful force in the steppe.

The Mongols had tribal associations, which by the indicated time were not so much ethnic as political communities. Each of these associations had its own leader - Khan . As a rule, the khans at that time were already hereditary rulers, although the electoral system of the era of military democracy continued to exist, when the khan as a military leader was chosen by representatives of the tribal aristocracy. Sources indicate that in the XI-XII centuries. in Mongolian society, the steppe nobility stood out - “noyons”, people of the “white bone”. They bore special titles: "Bogatyr", "Sharpshooter", "Strongman", "Wise", etc.

From the second half of the XII century. the rivalry of individual aristocratic families for power, for the distribution of pastures, the removal of other people's herds and the kidnapping of brides of "foreign bone" intensified. Iranian scientist, vizier of the Mongolian Ilkhans, Rashid ad-Din (12471318) reports: “Each tribe had a sovereign and an emir. Most of the time they fought and fought each other, quarreled and robbed each other.”

As a result of tribal enmity, as well as China's traditional policy of pitting nomads against each other to prevent their unification, robbery, theft, arbitrariness, lawlessness, and adultery have become commonplace. Thus, the need for political unification became obvious.

Even at the end of the XII century. Temujin (1154/1162(?) -Aug. 25, 1227), the son of Khan Yesugei, stood out among the Mongols, who experienced many disasters after the death of his father: childhood in the struggle of small nomads; in his youth, he was a prisoner in China, where he learned a lot, including learning about the weaknesses of the Middle Kingdom. He gathered young warriors ("people of long will"), who formed horde(team) and lived on military booty. They fought with their neighbors and accepted into their ranks everyone who was ready to submit to their way of life. Soon all the peoples of the Mongols submitted to the horde, and Temujin was proclaimed at the kurultai in 1206 (the year of the Tiger / Leopard) kaan , i.e. Genghis Khan ("Ocean Khan" - "Lord of the World"; in Turkic - Tengis Khan).

In the issue of unification, 2 trends emerged:

Most of the aristocracy preferred to unite at the level tribal confederation while maintaining their real power on the ground. But this could not ensure socio-political stability, because. tribal unions in Mongolia fell apart as quickly as they arose. This trend was driven by Jamukha , supported by the Tatars.

trend towards a highly centralized state the supporter of which was Genghis Khan, supported by the Mongols.

In a difficult war, Genghis Khan defeated the Tatars, almost completely exterminating them. Jamukha was executed. He persuaded the steppe aristocracy to create a state. Then Genghis Khan began the unification of the steppes. The internal struggle was very fierce and more difficult for the Mongols than subsequent external conquests.

These were typical steppe wars, after which the prisoners were boiled in cauldrons, "equated to the axis of the cart", pregnant women were ripped open. In Mongolian legends about this struggle it is written: “The starry sky used to turn. They didn’t lie down on the bed here, the mother wide earth shuddered - that’s what a pan-lingual strife was going on. Genghis Khan himself said that "the highest pleasure for a man is to defeat his enemies, drive them in front of him, take everything from them, see the faces of their loved ones in tears, squeeze their daughters and wives in the arms."

2. Creation of the Mongolian state

From 1206, the history of Mongolian statehood begins, which initially had an imperial tendency. The military character of the state was manifested in the oath taken to the Great Khan. The power of the Khan was also figuratively manifested in the rituals that accompanied the accession to the power of the Great Khan: the nearest nobles laid a sword in front of him, and he asked: “Is each of you ready to do what I command, go where I send, kill whom I will I order?" The nobles answered: "Ready." Then the Khan said to them: "From now on, let the word of my mouth be my sword."

The power of the Great Khan was also manifested in the fact that he was the ruler over life, death and property of each subject.

Factors hindering the peaceful development of the state:

During the process of centralization, nomadic pastoralism fell into decline, i.e. the basis of the economy. This pushed them to seize new herds and pastures from their neighbors.

The entire male population was mobilized into the army, trained in the art of war, aimed at war as the most effective means of acquiring material well-being.

Carrying out plans for aggressive campaigns, Genghis Khan, first of all, took up the military-administrative structure of the state.

The territory of Mongolia was divided into two parts: the left wing and the right wing, between which was the territory of Genghis Khan's own nomad camp. Such a division of the territory dates back to the time of the Huns and other tribal associations - the ancestors of the Mongols. Their experience greatly influenced the process of organizing the Mongol Empire.

Each of the three large districts (right and left wings and the center) was divided into "darkness" (10 thousand people), "thousands", "hundreds" and "tens". The territorial division corresponded to the principle of staffing the army, headed by tenth, sotsky, thousandths and temniks. of the best warriors, which played a huge role in strengthening the combat capability of the army. Companions of Genghis Khan were at the head of the territories, nukers and noyons .

Thus, Genghis Khan, having shown himself earlier as an outstanding commander, now showed himself as a talented organizer and politician. He turned the earlier warring tribes into a single powerful horde, placing it on a solid foundation. His domestic and foreign policy was aimed at protecting the interests of the noyonism. The administrative system also served these purposes. Under Genghis Khan, the city of Karakorum, the center of crafts and trade, became the capital of the empire.

Such a military-administrative structure of the state reflected the process of replacing former kinship ties with new administrative-territorial ones. Members of the former tribal collectives turned into vassals dependent on military leaders.

The positions of noyons (temniks, thousanders, centurions) were hereditary, but they did not have the right to own the nomad camp and the population that roamed on this land (they could not transfer or sell).

Relatives and closest associates of Genghis Khan received destinies and subjects for personal use. The latter were not included in the thousands and carried duties only in favor of their masters.

Such a mobile system of government was brought to life by the peculiar conditions of the aristocracy, which was looking for enrichment through military adventures and made it possible for Genghis Khan to mobilize the required number of soldiers at any time.

In addition to the power of the Khan, the Mongols were still subject to the harsh ancient law Great Yasa , which prescribed to each of the Horde members the observance of the basic rules of behavior and attitude towards their neighbors: deceit, failure to help a comrade in a war, strife between friends and any quarrels were especially severely punished.

Thus, the principles of the Mongol state laid down by Genghis Khan became the basis of the Mongol Empire. You can talk about " the dual nature of the "steppe empires" . Outwardly, they looked like despotic conquering states, because. were created to extract a surplus product outside the steppe. From the inside, these empires remained based on tribal ties without taxation and exploitation of pastoralists. The strength of the ruler's power was based on his ability to organize military campaigns and redistribute income from trade, tribute and raids on neighboring peoples.

3. Main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.

The history of the Mongolian state is the history of conquests. Reasons for the Mongol conquests:

The nomadic nobility lived by robbing their own people and neighboring peoples. Thus, robbery, primarily of non-Mongolian peoples, is the main source of enrichment for the nobility and the main reason for the Mongol conquests. From the Great Wall of China to the Hungarian border - a grassy-steppe space;

Genghis Khan was faced with the task of distracting the nobility from separatist tendencies, and keeping the created empire from rapid collapse. This could be achieved by plundering Eurasia;

In the conditions of the Mongolian state, it was necessary to divert the attention of the masses from the deteriorating situation. So, from the sources you can find out that many Mongol warriors and cattle breeders did not have horses. A nomad without a horse in the conditions of the XIII-XIV centuries was neither a warrior nor even a shepherd. The impoverishment of the vast majority of the Mongols was a widespread phenomenon. At times, vagrancy was not only widespread among them, but also took on a huge scale.

In terms of the scale of expansion and the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, it can only be compared with the invasion of the Huns.

With a relatively small army, the Mongol expansion was carried out like a fan in 3 directions:

southeastern - China, Korea, Japan, Indochina, Java.

southwestern - Central Asia, Iran, the Caucasus, the Arab Caliphate.

northwestern - Russia, Europe.

The first blow Genghis Khan brought down southbound , on the state of the Tanguts, Xi-Xia and Jin. The first blows against the Tangut state were delivered in 1205; in 1207 and 1209 - the second and third campaigns against the Tanguts. As a result of the victories of the Mongols, the Tanguts were forced to make peace with them and pay a large indemnity. Since 1211 campaigns against the Jurchens (in 1215 Beijing was taken).

In 1218 it was announced western hike, which was preceded by victories over the Kara-Khitans and the tribes of Southern Siberia. The main goals of the western campaign were the rich territories and cities of Central Asia (the state of Khorezmshah, Bukhara, Samarkand), which was conquered in 1222. The development of this direction led the Mongols to the Caucasus, to the southern Russian steppes.

Thus, Northern China (1211-1234) and Central Asia were hit hardest when Mongol expansion was on the rise. Northern China literally turned into a desert (a contemporary wrote: “Traces of terrible devastation were visible everywhere, the bones of the dead made up whole mountains: the soil was loose from human fat, the rotting of corpses caused diseases”).

AT Central Asia everything that resisted was subjected to a "general massacre" ("katliamm"). Rashid ad-Din wrote that Genghis Khan gave the order to kill every living creature from any kind of people and any breed of cattle, wild animals and birds, not to take a single prisoner and no prey. Here, most of the cities were subjected to a "general massacre."

By 1233, some areas were conquered Iran and about the same time -

1236 - completed the conquest Caucasus;

1256 The Mongols re-invaded Iran as a result of which the valleys of Western Asia turned into a desert;

1258 - fell Abbasid Caliphate and Baghdad, the largest city on earth, was taken, which also underwent a "general massacre."

Only the Mameluks managed to defeat the Mongol detachment in Palestine (1260), thereby protecting Egypt from the Mongol invasion. It was a victory comparable to the victory of Charles Martel over the Arabs at Poitiers, because. it marked a turning point in repelling the wave of invasion.

Starting with the conquest of Russia (1237), we can talk about the gradual attenuation of the Mongol expansion. At the turn of the expansion, between 1237 and 1241. The Mongols invaded Europe. Their onslaught, as in Asia, was cruel and intimidating. Having devastated Russia, southern Poland and a significant part of Hungary, in Silesia they destroyed the army of German knights (1241) near the city of Legnica, west of the Oder River.

From Western Europe, the Mongols began to retreat in 1241/42, despite the fact that all the battles of 1241-1242. have been won. Khan Batu (Khan of the Golden Horde from 1243 to 1255; grandson of Genghis Khan) did not meet powerful organized resistance in Europe. Apparently, only the problems associated with the choice of a successor to Genghis Khan (after the death of Khan Ogedei) forced the leaders of the Mongols to turn east after this victory. Khan Batu understood that he could not keep Poland, Hungary and the lands of the southern Slavs under his rule. By 1243, all the Mongol armies were withdrawn beyond the Carpathians. From Hungary, they managed to collect tribute only once.

In the 40s. 13th century Batu Khan created the Tatar-Mongolian state Golden Horde (Western Siberia; northern Khorezm; Volga Bulgaria; Crimea; steppes from the Volga to the Danube). Capital Cities : Sarai-Batu (Old Saray; modern Astrakhan region); Sarai-Berke (from the 1st half of the 14th century; New Saray; modern Volgograd region). The Russian principalities were in vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. From the 15th century the empire broke up into Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimean and other khanates.

The extreme western limits of the invasion turned out to be the German city of Meissen and the countryside in Austria, where the Mongol detachment killed up to a hundred peasants.

Under Khubilai (1278-1294; 5th Great Khan), Mongol expansion reached extreme southern and eastern points: prolonged conquest of Vietnam, unsuccessful campaigns in Japan, unsuccessful invasion of the island of Java (resolute resistance of the people). Thus, the Mongol Empire could only exist as long as it was at war:

only conquests held it together.

Reasons for the success of the Mongol conquests: Reasons for internal order:

The military and diplomatic talent of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan himself was remarkable for his amazing ability to adapt to unfamiliar conditions and willingly used Chinese and Muslim-Turkic "specialists" in his army. He organized a magnificent "service of informers", and merchants of all nationalities and religions delivered a lot of information to him, whom he encouraged in every possible way. Genghis Khan also succeeded in the cold-blooded, thoughtful use of diplomatic measures and military force in accordance with the circumstances. All these qualities allowed Genghis Khan, his gifted sons, grandchildren and military leaders to continuously win victories over the next enemy.

ideological justification the conquests of Genghis Khan was the idea of ​​his being chosen by the Eternal Sky as the khan of all peoples;

The social homogeneity of Mongolian society and the relative weakness of antagonism within it;

The presence of cavalry. In the steppe, a man is inseparable from a horse and a saber (“human centaur”). Horses were decorated with blankets made of human skin, and the skulls of dead enemies were hung from the saddles. In the steppe you have to kill first - otherwise they will kill you → you need to train in the ability to kill every day.

Under the command of Genghis Khan was an excellently organized and disciplined army; it consisted of horse archers and had exceptional mobility (up to 150 km per day) combined with superiority in long-range weapons. (Army of Genghis Khan≈129 thousand, Batu≈142 thousand); if a warrior fled from the battlefield, a dozen were punished; 10 people retreated - a hundred were punished. The army created by Genghis Khan was a decisive factor in the success of the relatively small ethnos of the Mongols.

The Mongol conquests, which crushed the civilization of the Middle Ages, became possible thanks to a fundamental discovery - Mongolian bow("saadak"). It was a complex killing machine, glued together from bone and wood of various kinds. An arrow from this bow pierced any armor for 400 meters. The Mongols taught children from the age of 3 to the bow, gradually increasing its size.

A variety of tactics used depending on specific conditions:

mercy tactics in surrender; the tactics of encircling a large area with several detachments and moving towards their center, surrounding and squeezing the enemy;

The empire of Genghis Khan united the military forces of the largest part of the nomads of Central Asia (not only Mongolian, but also many Turkic, Manchu, Tungus, etc.).

Numerous, solidarity, submission to the power of one khan, who was the sovereign ruler over life and death, the person and property of all his subordinates.

Causes of the external order

The fragmentation of the conquered territories, the rulers of which were afraid to arm the people against the Mongols;

The betrayal of the merchants, which was a cosmopolitan force (informers, spies, guides for military detachments);

Crowd tactics (forward civilians, then Mongol warriors).

Consequences of the Mongol conquests

Describing the consequences of the Mongol conquests, Yelü Chutsai, who literally saved China from extermination, wrote: "The heavenly network was torn, the earth's axis was broken, human justice disappeared."

As a result of the conquests by Genghis Khan, his sons and grandsons, an empire was created, unprecedented in size (from Korea in the East to Syria in the West; including the territory of Central Asia, China, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Iran). The cities of Russia were burned and taxed; devastating raids were made on Hungary, Drake, Moravia and Poland.

The consequences of the invasions were different for different regions: they were the most severe for Central Asia (huge human losses, destruction of the irrigation system). They were heavy for China, especially northern. But here we can also talk about assimilation :

Khubilai's heirs learned the basics of Chinese culture, including language and writing. In particular, the whale. lang. the biography of Genghis Khan was translated (only this translation has survived to this day). But for the indigenous population, they remained strangers;

In the XIV century. the rulers of various parts of the Mongol Empire adopted Buddhism or Islam. This meant that in fact they were subjugated by the cultures in which they lived - Chinese, Persian or Arabic.

If we talk about Russia, then here we should talk, first of all, about the grave consequences in terms of spirituality. In present time there is a controversy: “Was there a yoke?”. Most major historians are supporters of the traditional point of view that the Mongol invasion played a completely negative role in the history of the Russian people. Others: Consequences both negative and positive. Thirdly, the consequence was the formation of an empire and an imperial space.

Metaphor: nomads are not only children, but also fathers of the desert. This fully applies to the Mongols, especially in relation to Northern China, Central Asia.

The territory of Mongolia was largely affected (after the creation of the empire, the population of Mongolia decreased sharply; the color of the Mongolian population settled throughout the continent). The aggressive policy slowed down not only the progressive development of the conquered countries, but also the development of the productive forces and culture of Mongolia itself. The Mongol Empire, created by fire and sword, on the blood of enslaved peoples, torn apart by internal contradictions, did not have a single economic base, in the end, fell under the blows of the conquered peoples.

In the period preceding the formation of statehood among the Mongols, the tribes that lived here had their own names and were not called Mongols.

To the "black" Tatars, most researchers include the Mongols 3 Bagatur - warrior; noyon - master; representative of the steppe nobility.

During this period, the Mongols are pagans.

Kurultai ˂Turk. - advice of nomadic nobility.

Kaan is the Mongolian name for Chinese emperors.

Meritum ˂ lat. - merit, cratos ˂ Gr. - power.

Nuker - a native of the aristocracy, a vassal of the emperor, primarily indebted to military service

Jochi since 1224 he was the khan of the Jochi ulus in the west of the Mongol Empire (the territory of northern Kazakhstan); since 1240 the Golden Horde; Chagatai(received Central Asia as an inheritance); Ogedei(eldest son of Genghis Khan; 1186-1241; from 1229 successor to the Great Khan); Tuluy(youngest son; ruler of central and western Mongolia).

The main reasons for the Mongol campaigns

• * The need to expand the boundaries of the state;
• * The need to expand rangelands;
• * For the Mongol nobility, new conquered peoples are new payers given and
• * Military reserve for warfare.
• * To meet the requirements of the nomadic nobility, stop internal strife and civil strife.

In 1211-1215. Genghis Khan conquered Northern China and the Mongols armed themselves with Chinese military equipment.

In 1218-1219. Genghis Khan conquered the peoples of Siberia (Yakuts, Buryats), the Yenisei Kyrgyz. The Uighur and Turfan principalities in East Turkestan surrendered without a fight.

The next task is the conquest of Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Iran, the Middle East, Transcaucasia and Eastern Europe.

Mongol invasion on the territory of Kazakhstan

Semirechye was occupied by the Mongols without resistance: In 1218, the Mongol army led by Zhebe-noyon defeated the Naiman Khanate in Semirechye. The population of Semirechie accepted the Mongols as deliverers from the persecution of the Naiman Khan Kuchluk against Muslims. Kuchluk himself, without resisting the Mongols, fled to Central Asia, was overtaken by the Mongols in Badakhshan and killed.

• * In 1210-1211. Arslan Khan, the ruler of the Karluks in Koyalyk, passed under the rule of Genghis Khan.
• * In 1217, the ruler of the Karluk region, Almalyk Buzar, also became a vassal of the Mongol Khan.
• * In 1218, the city of Balasagun surrendered to the Mongols without a fight. Wishing to attract the people of Semirechye to his side, Genghis Khan banned robberies and massacres in this region. The capture of East Turkestan and Semirechie opened the way for the Mongols to Central Asia through South Kazakhstan. In Central Asia at that time there was a strong state of Khorezm.

In 1218, a trade agreement was concluded between Genghis Khan and Khorezm Shah Mohammed.

The reason for the invasion is the "Otrar catastrophe".

In the summer of 1218, Genghis Khan sent a trade caravan of 450 people to Otrar. and 500 camels carrying huge valuables and gifts. The ruler of Otrar, Kair-khan Inalchyk, suspecting the merchants of espionage, ordered them to be killed and plundered the caravan. In response to Genghis Khan's demand to extradite Kair Khan, Khorezmshah Muhammad killed the Mongol ambassadors. This event in history was called the "Otrar catastrophe" and served as a pretext for the invasion of Genghis Khan into the territory of Kazakhstan and Central Asia.

THE INVASION OF THE MONGOLO-TATARS INTO RUSSIA, 1237-1240

In 1237, the 75,000-strong army of Batu Khan invaded Russian borders. The hordes of the Mongol-Tatars, the well-armed army of the Khan's empire, the largest in medieval history, came to conquer Russia: to wipe out the rebellious Russian cities and villages from the face of the earth, to impose tribute on the population and to establish the power of their governors, the Baskaks, on the entire expanse of Russian land.

The attack of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia was sudden, but not only this determined the success of the invasion. For a number of objective reasons, power was on the side of the conquerors, the fate of Russia was a foregone conclusion, as was the success of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Russia by the beginning of the 13th century is a country torn into small principalities, without a single ruler and army. Behind the Mongol-Tatars, on the contrary, stood a strong and united power, approaching the peak of its power. Only a century and a half later, in 1380, in different political and economic conditions, Russia was able to put up a strong army against the Golden Horde, led by a single commander - the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich and move from a shameful and unsuccessful defense to active military operations and achieve a devastating victory on the Kulikovo field.

About any unity of the Russian land in 1237-1240. there was no question, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars showed the weakness of Russia, the invasion of the enemy and the power of the Golden Horde, which had been established for two and a half centuries, the Golden Horde yoke became retribution for internecine enmity and the violation of all-Russian interests by the Russian princes, who were too carried away by the satisfaction of their political ambitions.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia was swift and merciless. In December 1237, the Batu army burned Ryazan, and on January 1, 1238, Kolomna fell under the onslaught of the enemy. During January - May 1238, the Mongol-Tatar invasion incinerated the Vladimir, Pereyaslav, Yuryev, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglitsky and Kozelsky principalities. In 1239, it was destroyed by Mur, a year later, residents of cities and villages of the Chernigov Principality faced the misfortune of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, in September - December 1240, the ancient capital city of Russia - Kyiv was conquered.

After the defeat of North-Eastern and Southern Russia, the countries of Eastern Europe were subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion: Batu's army won a number of major victories in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, but, having lost significant forces on Russian soil, returned to the Volga region, which became the epicenter of the powerful Golden Horde.

With the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars to Russia, the Golden Horde period of Russian history began: the era of the dominion of the eastern despotism, the oppression and ruin of the Russian people, the period of the decline of the Russian economy and culture.

The beginning of the Mongol conquests of the Russian principalities

In the XIII century. the peoples of Russia had to endure a hard struggle with Tatar-Mongol conquerors who ruled in the Russian lands until the 15th century. (the last century in a milder form). Directly or indirectly, the Mongol invasion contributed to the fall of the political institutions of the Kyiv period and the growth of absolutism.

In the XII century. there was no centralized state in Mongolia; the union of the tribes was achieved at the end of the 12th century. Temuchin, the leader of one of the clans. At a general meeting (“kurultai”) of representatives of all clans in 1206 d. he was proclaimed a great khan with the name Genghis(“Infinite Power”).

As soon as the empire was created, it began its expansion. The organization of the Mongolian army was based on the decimal principle - 10, 100, 1000, etc. The imperial guard was created, which controlled the entire army. Before the advent of firearms Mongolian cavalry took up in the steppe wars. She is was better organized and trained than any nomadic army of the past. The reason for success was not only the perfection of the military organization of the Mongols, but also the unpreparedness of rivals.

At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Mongols in 1215 set about conquering China. They managed to capture the entire northern part of it. From China, the Mongols took out the latest military equipment and specialists for that time. In addition, they received cadres of competent and experienced officials from among the Chinese. In 1219, the troops of Genghis Khan invaded Central Asia. Following Central Asia captured Northern Iran, after which the troops of Genghis Khan made a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to the Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.

The request of the Polovtsy to help them against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes, who promised to participate in the battle, put up their troops. The battle ended with the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and combatants died.

In 1227, Genghis Khan died. Ogedei, his third son, was elected Great Khan. In 1235, the Kurultai met in the Mongolian capital of Karakorum, where it was decided to begin the conquest of the western lands. This intention posed a terrible threat to the Russian lands. Ogedei's nephew, Batu (Batu), became the head of the new campaign.

In 1236, the troops of Batu began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated the Volga Bulgaria, they set off to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, the Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. Many Russian soldiers died in the battle near Kolomna, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, the invaders sent a detachment to Suzdal, who took it and burned it. The Mongols stopped only in front of Novgorod, turning south due to mudslides.

In 1240 the Mongol offensive resumed. Chernigov and Kyiv were captured and destroyed. From here, the Mongol troops moved into Galicia-Volyn Rus. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich in 1241, Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and then in 1242 reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, the Mongol troops entered Western Europe significantly weakened by the powerful resistance they met in Russia. This largely explains the fact that if the Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Russia, then Western Europe experienced only an invasion, and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the invasion of the Mongols.

The result of the grandiose campaign of Batu was the conquest of a vast territory - the southern Russian steppes and forests of Northern Russia, the Lower Danube region (Bulgaria and Moldova). The Mongol Empire now included the entire Eurasian continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Balkans.

After the death of Ögedei in 1241, the majority supported the candidacy of Ögedei's son Gayuk. Batu became the head of the strongest regional khanate. He established his capital at Sarai (north of Astrakhan). His power extended to Kazakhstan, Khorezm, Western Siberia, the Volga, the North Caucasus, Russia. Gradually, the western part of this ulus became known as Golden Horde.

The first armed clash between the Russian squad and the Mongol-Tatar army took place 14 years before the invasion of Batu. In 1223, the Mongol-Tatar army under the command of Subudai-Bagatur went on a campaign against the Polovtsy in the immediate vicinity of the Russian lands. At the request of the Polovtsy, some Russian princes provided military assistance to the Polovtsy.

On May 31, 1223, a battle took place between the Russian-Polovtsian detachments and the Mongol-Tatars on the Kalka River near the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. As a result of this battle, the Russian-Polovtsian militia suffered a crushing defeat from the Mongol-Tatars. The Russian-Polovtsian army suffered heavy losses. Six Russian princes were killed, including Mstislav Udaloy, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan and more than 10 thousand militias.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian-half army were:

The unwillingness of the Russian princes to act as a united front against the Mongol-Tatars (most of the Russian princes refused to respond to the request of their neighbors and send troops);

Underestimation of the Mongol-Tatars (the Russian militia was poorly armed and did not properly tune in to the battle);

Inconsistency of actions during the battle (Russian troops were not a single army, but disparate squads of different princes acting in their own way; some squads left the battle and watched from the side).

Having won a victory at Kalka, the army of Subudai-Bagatur did not develop success and left for the steppes.

4. After 13 years, in 1236, the Mongol-Tatar army led by Batu Khan (Batu Khan), the grandson of Genghis Khan and the son of Jochi, invaded the Volga steppes and Volga Bulgaria (the territory of modern Tataria). Having defeated the Polovtsy and the Volga Bulgars, the Mongol-Tatars decided to invade Russia.

The conquest of Russian lands was carried out during two campaigns:

The campaign of 1237 - 1238, as a result of which the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities were conquered - the north-east of Russia;

The campaign of 1239 - 1240, as a result of which the Chernigov and Kiev principalities, other principalities of the south of Russia were conquered. The Russian principalities offered heroic resistance. Among the most important battles of the war with the Mongol-Tatars are:

The defense of Ryazan (1237) - the very first large city attacked by the Mongol-Tatars - almost all the inhabitants participated and died during the defense of the city;

Defense of Vladimir (1238);

Defense of Kozelsk (1238) - the Mongol-Tatars stormed Kozelsk for 7 weeks, for which they called it the "evil city";

Battle on the City River (1238) - the heroic resistance of the Russian militia prevented the further advance of the Mongol-Tatars to the north - to Novgorod;

The defense of Kyiv - the city fought for about a month.

December 6, 1240 Kyiv fell. This event is considered the final defeat of the Russian principalities in the struggle against the Mongol-Tatars.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian principalities in the war against the Mongol-Tatars are:

Feudal fragmentation;

The absence of a single centralized state and a single army;

Enmity between princes;

The transition to the side of the Mongols of individual princes;

The technical backwardness of the Russian squads and the military and organizational superiority of the Mongol-Tatars.

Consequences of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars for the Old Russian state.

The invasion of nomads was accompanied by massive destruction of Russian cities, the inhabitants were ruthlessly destroyed or taken into captivity. This led to a noticeable decline in Russian cities - the population decreased, the life of the townspeople became poorer, many crafts were lost.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a heavy blow to the basis of urban culture - handicraft production, since the destruction of cities was accompanied by mass withdrawals of artisans to Mongolia and the Golden Horde. Together with the artisan population, Russian cities lost their centuries-old production experience: craftsmen took their professional secrets with them. The quality of construction subsequently also greatly decreased. No less heavy damage was inflicted by the conquerors on the Russian countryside, the rural monasteries of Russia. The peasants were robbed by everyone: the Horde officials, and numerous Khan's ambassadors, and simply regional gangs. The damage inflicted by the Mongol-Tatars on the peasant economy was terrible. In the war, dwellings and outbuildings were destroyed. Working cattle was captured and driven to the Horde. Horde robbers often raked the entire crop out of the barns. Russian peasants - prisoners were an important item of "export" from the Golden Horde to the East. Ruin, constant threat, shameful slavery - this is what the conquerors brought to the Russian countryside. The damage inflicted on the national economy of Russia by the Mongolo-Tatar conquerors was not limited to devastating robberies during raids. After the establishment of the yoke, huge values ​​left the country in the form of "ani" and "requests". The constant leakage of silver and other metals had dire consequences for the economy. Silver was not enough for trade, there was even a "silver hunger". The Mongol-Tatar conquest led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the Russian principalities. Ancient trade and cultural ties with neighboring states were forcibly severed. So, for example, the Lithuanian feudal lords used the weakening of Russia for predatory raids. The German feudal lords intensified their offensive against the Russian lands. Russia lost its way to the Baltic Sea. In addition, the ancient ties between the Russian principalities and Byzantium were broken, and trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong devastating blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. In the fire of the Mongol-Tatar invasions, numerous monuments, icon paintings and architecture were destroyed. And also there was a decline in Russian chronicle writing, which reached its dawn by the beginning of the Batu invasion.

The Mongol-Tatar conquest artificially delayed the spread of commodity-money relations, "conserved" the subsistence economy. While the Western European states, which were not attacked, were gradually moving from feudalism to capitalism, Russia, torn to pieces by the conquerors, preserved the feudal economy. It is even difficult to imagine how dearly the campaigns of the Mongol khans would have cost humanity and how much more misfortune, murder and destruction they could have caused if the heroic resistance of the Russian people and other peoples of our country, having exhausted and weakened the enemy, did not stop the invasion on the borders of Central Europe.

The positive moment was that all Russian clergy with church people were spared from paying heavy Tatar tribute. It should be noted that the Tatars were completely tolerant of all religions, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not tolerate any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, the Russian metropolitans received special letters (“labels”) from the khans, which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and inviolability church properties. The Church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of the Russian “peasantry”.

Finally, Tatar rule separated Eastern Russia from Western Europe for a long time, and after the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the eastern branch of the Russian people was separated from its western branch for several centuries, which created a wall of mutual alienation between them. Eastern Russia, which was under the rule of the Tatars, itself turned into “Tataria” in the minds of ignorant Europeans ...

What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?

Firstly, this is the backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe. Europe continued to develop, but Russia had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.

The second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery). Also, farmers moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this hindered economic development.

The third is the slowness of the cultural development of the Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built in Russia at all.

Fourth, the termination of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe. Now the foreign policy of Russia was focused on the Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and, in case of disobedience of the principalities, carried out punitive campaigns.

The fifth consequence is highly controversial. Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved the political fragmentation in Russia, others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.

Birth of the Mongol Empire. At the beginning of the XIII century. Vague rumors began to reach Russia about the emergence somewhere in the East of a new powerful state of steppe nomads. They were denounced by merchants from India and Central Asia, travelers. And soon a new formidable danger arose already at the Russian borders. They were Mongol-Tatars.

In the second half of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. Numerous Mongol tribes lived in the vast expanses north of China. The Mongols themselves were one of these tribes. It was they who later gave a generalized name to all related tribes.

Tatars were another local tribe. They were at enmity with the Mongols, but were later subdued by them. But it so happened that in the outside world, and especially in Western Europe and in Russia, it was this name - "Tatars" - that was assigned to all the Mongol tribes.

In the second half of the XII century. the Mongols experienced approximately the same processes as in Western Europe in the 5th-7th centuries. and among the Eastern Slavs in the 8th - 9th centuries: tribal relations were dying out, private property appeared, a separate family became the economic basis of society. But the time difference was great. The Mongols lagged behind in their development in comparison with Russia for four centuries, not to mention the Western European countries. There was another difference: the Mongols were nomadic pastoralists. The basis of their economy, the main wealth was the herds of horses, herds of cattle. Therefore, they constantly needed vast and rich pastures.

Among the Mongols, leaders stood out - khans. Next to them stood tribal elders - noyons. They owned a huge amount of cattle, they captured the best pastures for themselves. Khans and noyons could contain fighting squads, subjugate simple fellow tribesmen - arats. Large khans had their own squad - nukers.

In Mongolian society, like other medieval peoples, feudal relations and statehood were born. But here the measure of wealth, power, the basis of the domination of some people over others were cattle and pastures. A nomadic economy was conducted here and cities were not built. All this gave Mongolian society the features of a backward civilization.

From the very beginning of the birth of the Mongolian statehood, it was of a militarized nature, and not because the Mongols are naturally more warlike than other peoples. The capture of new pastures, the destruction of other peoples who owned these pastures before, often became a vital necessity for pastoralists - otherwise they were threatened with death from starvation. The Mongols from childhood were excellent riders, archers. They were superb with lassoes, throwing them at a gallop at a target. Their undersized shaggy horses were exceptionally hardy and unpretentious. The khans made full use of the peculiarities of their fellow tribesmen - their military skill, the ability to move quickly. In the second half of the XII century. between the Mongolian tribes, as in the early times among the Germanic tribes, the Eastern Slavs, an intertribal struggle for primacy began. Those who won subjugated their opponents, some of them were enslaved, others were forced to serve their military interests. The birth of the state was accompanied by wars between tribes and alliances of tribes, the rise of leaders, their civil strife.

Genghis Khan. In the late 50s - early 60s. 12th century one of the Mongol leaders - Yesugei - managed to unite under his rule most of the Mongol tribes. The eldest son Temuchen was born in his family. However, Yesugei was not at the top for long. The Tatars, who were at enmity with him, poisoned him, and Yesugei's association fell apart.

For a long time, the widow of Yesugei with her children was in poverty, wandering around the steppes, but then the grown-up Temuchen managed to gather his squad. By 1190, Temuchen, in a desperate struggle with other khans, was able to subjugate the main part of the Mongol tribes to his influence and take the throne of Khamag Mongol Ulus, that is, all Mongols. During these years, he showed himself to be an exceptionally brave warrior, bold to the point of recklessness.

Having subjugated most of the Mongols, Temuchen carried out a series of reforms: he introduced a decimal system for organizing the army and the whole society (the entire adult population was divided into tumens (“darkness”) of 10 thousand soldiers, thousands, hundreds and tens). Moreover, a dozen, as a rule, coincided with the family. At the head of these detachments, which operated both in peacetime and in wartime, were commanders who strictly obeyed each other through the ranks. Severe measures were maintained by iron discipline: for the flight from the battlefield of one warrior, the whole dozen, the whole family in which this warrior served, was punished with death. Temuchen created a personal guard, gave great privileges to his noyons and nukers, freeing them from taxes. At the same time, he continued to subjugate the Mongol tribes that did not recognize his authority. One of the last was the tribe of Tatars.

At the kurultai (congress of leaders) in 1204-1205. Temuchen was proclaimed Genghis Khan, that is, the great khan. Thus, he managed to unite the Mongols into a single state. At the kurultai, the goal of the Mongols was proclaimed the conquest of world domination.

Mongol conquests. The state-military machine of the Mongols began to work at full speed in 1211, when Genghis Khan attacked Northern China and conquered it within a few years. For the Mongols, China, with its ancient civilization, played in many respects the same role as the Roman Empire for the Western "barbarian" states that formed on its ruins. Genghis Khan used the experience and knowledge of Chinese officials in management, attracted Chinese scientists and military specialists to his service. The Mongol army was now strong not only with its powerful and fast cavalry, where the horsemen were armed with bows with arrows, sabers, spears, lassoes, but also with Chinese siege wall and stone-throwing machines, throwing projectiles with a combustible mixture, which included oil.

Genghis Khan had excellent intelligence. Before going on a military campaign, the Mongols, through merchants, travelers, through their secret agents, carefully collected information about future opponents, about the state of the political situation in their lands, about their allies and enemies, about defensive structures.

Often the role of scouts was played by embassies sent to a particular country before its conquest. The brutal massacres of the Mongols with opponents had a depressing effect on the enemies. They destroyed the recalcitrant cities - they burned, destroyed, and the inhabitants were either taken away into captivity (artisans, women, children), or exterminated.

After the march on China, the Mongols turned to the west the tip of their powerful, well-organized military machine, capable of large-scale and long-term wars.

Tragedy on the Kalka. In the Polovtsian steppes and on the borders of Russia, a select detachment of Genghis Khan's troops operated under the leadership of his best generals - the young talented Dzhebe and the wise old Subede. The Polovtsian Khan Kotyan, within whose limits the Mongols entered, turned to the Russian princes for help. He wrote to his son-in-law, Prince Mstislav the Udalny, who at that time reigned in Galich: “Our land was taken away today, and tomorrow, when they come, they will take yours.” However, in the Russian principalities, the Polovtsy's request for help was met with doubt. The princes did not trust their ancient opponents, and the appearance on the Russian borders of a new, hitherto unknown Mongol army was perceived as the exit from the steppe of another horde of nomads. There were Pechenegs, then Polovtsians. Now there are some Tatars. Even if they are strong, but there was confidence that the Russian squads would defeat these newcomers. Such sentiments were also reflected in the congress of princes in Kyiv, which met at the initiative of Mstislav Udaly. The Galician prince called for action against an unknown and terrible enemy. Not everyone responded to his call. The Prince of Kyiv Mstislav Romanovich, Mstislav Svyatoslavich Chernigov, Daniil Romanovich, who reigned at that time in Vladimir-Volynsky (son-in-law of Mstislav Udaly), as well as smaller princes, agreed to participate in the campaign. In essence, the powerful Prince Yuri Vladimirsky refused to help. True, he sent the Rostov regiment, but he did not have time to reach.

Having learned about the performance of the Russian army, the Mongols, true to their principle of splitting the enemies, sent an embassy to the Russian princes, which stated: “We hear that you are going against us, having listened to the Polovtsy, but we have not occupied your land, nor your cities, not on We have come to you, but for the lackeys and for our grooms, for the filthy Polovtsy. And you take the world with us." But, having already heard about the deceit and cruelty of the Mongols, the Russian princes refused to negotiate with them, killed the Mongol ambassadors and moved towards the enemy. The first battle with the Mongols was successful. The advanced Mongol detachments fled to their main forces. Russian squads continued to move further into the steppe, trying, as in the days of confrontation with the Polovtsy, to solve the matter on enemy territory, away from their native lands.

The decisive battle between the united Russian squads and the army of Dzhebe and Subede took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River, not far from the coast of the Sea of ​​Azov.

This battle revealed the separatism and political egoism of the Russian princes. While the squads of Mstislav the Udaly, Daniil Volynsky and some other princes, with the support of the Polovtsian cavalry, rushed to the enemy, Mstislav of Kyiv stood with his forces on one of the hills and did not participate in the battle. The Mongols managed to withstand the blow of the allies, and then went on the offensive. The Polovtsians, who fled from the battlefield, were the first to falter. This put the Galician and Volyn rati in a difficult position. The squads fought courageously, but the overall preponderance of forces was on the side of the Mongols. They broke the resistance of the Russians, they ran. Mstislav Udaloy and Daniil Romanovich fought in the thick of the battle. But their courage could not resist the military art and strength of the Mongols. Both princes with a few warriors escaped the chase.

During the battle on the Kalka, six princes were killed, only one in ten of ordinary soldiers returned home. Only the Kyiv army lost about 10 thousand people. This defeat turned out to be one of the most difficult for Russia in its entire history.

The Mongols took possession of a vast territory - from China to Central Asia and the Caucasus. Genghis Khan divided it among his sons. The western lands went to the eldest son Jochi, who died in the same year as his father (1227). At the head of the Western ulus (part) of the Mongol Empire stood the son of Jochi - a young, energetic Batu (Batu). In 1235, at the kurultai of the Mongol khans, which was held under the leadership of the new great khan Ogedei, the son of Genghis Khan, it was decided to march to Europe, "to the last sea."

Questions and tasks:

1. Compare the process of creating the Mongolian and Old Russian states.
2. What are the features of the natural conditions in which the Mongolian state was created, the structure of life and occupations of its inhabitants?
3. Make a portrait of Genghis Khan as a historical figure. Compare him as a ruler with one of the rulers of Russia, Western Europe known to you during the period of the formation of states there.
4. List the reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongol-Tatar army. Name at least five such reasons. Try to rank them in order of importance from most important to least important.
5. How can one explain the tragic outcome of the Battle of the Kalka for Russia? Could it have ended differently?