The phenomenon of bilingualism (bilingualism) is the subject of close attention of many researchers. The latter is explained not only by the multidimensionality of the problem of bilingualism, but also by its fate, which largely depends on language policy, which, unfortunately, does not always take into account the nature of the interaction of cultures and languages of peoples living in the same territory. The scientific literature deals with general issues of bilingualism from the standpoint of linguistics, psychology, sociology, psycholinguistics, reveals the causes of bilingualism, its ethnocultural roots. In the collective monographic works of the Soviet era, aspects of this problem are systematized: on the basis of a variety of factual material, the most important types of bilingualism, its forms and types are considered. The relevance of bilingualism is determined by the fact that at the beginning of the 21st century the education of bilingualism was designated as one of the leading directions of the educational policy of European countries.
The problem of bilingualism is multifaceted. So, its various aspects were studied in the works of C. Baker 1998, T. Skutnabb-Kangas 1981, K. Beikers 2002, J. Schumann 1978, W. Mackey 1970, N. I. Zhinkin 1959, E. M. Vereshchagin 1969, A .A. Leontieva 1964, N.V. Imedadze 1978 and others.
According to a number of researchers in the modern world, children's bilingualism covers almost half of the children on the planet, and this trend will continue to grow (L. Bloomfield 1969; Y. Weinreich 1999; M.T. Barannikova 1969; A.S. Markosyan 2004 and others. ). In real conditions of communication, bilingual children are characterized by spontaneous speech development during the assimilation of two languages. At the same time, there are other cases when children from families with a common communicative environment start attending a kindergarten or enter a school with a non-native language of instruction. The degree of speech development inevitably affects the self-awareness of a bilingual child, when the ability to express their thoughts and understand the speech of others in two languages affects their place and role in society (circle of friends, the opportunity to become a leader in a peer group, grades at school, etc.). ).
The process of developing bilingualism depends on the variety, depth and correctness of speech impressions that a child receives from early childhood in communication with adults. In this context, science is faced with the task of studying the features of the process of speech development of children when they master two unrelated languages in mixed communicative environments. At the same time, it is important to highlight the determining factors for the full development of bilingualism.
In educational psychology, the psychological aspects of the directed teaching of children in a foreign or second language at preschool or school age are more often studied (P. Ya. Galperin 1976, N. I. Zhinkin 1959, I. A. Zimnyaya 1989, etc.) On the other hand, the situation of the development of bilingualism in natural conditions of "mixed" families, in which the child's parents are carriers of different languages and communicate with adults or peers of other nationalities outside the family (A.A. Leontiev 1964, R.M. Frumkina 2001).
With the transition of state schools with the Russian language of instruction to bilingual education, where some models of this approach provide for the study of 50%-95% of the integrated content of educational material in the Latvian language already in the primary grades, serious negative phenomena arose. Their aggravation is also connected with the tendency to admit children from Russian-speaking families to schools with the Latvian language of instruction. Under these conditions, children experience natural discomfort generated by a foreign language environment for them, and the teacher is forced to deal with the unstable behavior of children, and sometimes the frustrations that arise in them. A significant number of children have a tendency to translate words and constructions from one language to another for a long time, trying to preserve the identity of meanings. However, the lack of a sufficient stock of words in the Latvian language prevents them from fully understanding the educational material and, accordingly, from acquiring the necessary translation skills from one language to another. Parents also cannot help the child at home, because children are not able to retell in their native language what is happening at school. As a result, schools are forced to work with a range of students who do not have sufficient command of either their mother tongue or their second language. The main problem for such children is that they, studying in a bilingual school or in a school with the Latvian language of instruction, never reach the so-called absolute bilingualism. Among these there are children who do not have a speech pathology, but who, for social reasons, did not have time to master the Latvian language by the time they enter school. Most of the problem children in this respect are children with various disorders of speech and non-speech development.
In addition, the attitude towards the Latvian language as the dominant language instilled in the school can lead to the fact that the student will perceive himself, his parents, the language and culture of the family as something of secondary importance. T. Skutnabb-Kangas points out that studying in an insufficiently mastered language gives rise to additional tension among students. Listening to the language requires increased concentration, tires, the student is forced to spend more on the perception of linguistic forms, rather than content. Students need not only linguistic and special, but also communicative competence - correct statements must be formulated in a language that is not only understandable, but also meets social norms. The child is forced to simultaneously master the language and perceive information. This often leads to stress, low self-esteem, dissatisfaction with oneself and alienation. Much depends on the individual characteristics of the student - on heredity, on upbringing in the family and, of course, on the level of development of the native language.
When learning a second language, both children and adults go through certain stages of mastering a second language. The stages are universal and invariable, regardless of whether the language is mastered in a natural or formal environment. At first - a small vocabulary and simple syntax, then - the complication of sentences. The development of speech units occurs gradually. The sequence in which certain grammatical or lexical units are mastered is individual. There are also differences in the pace of learning a second language and increasing the level of language proficiency. The stages of language acquisition are universal; the sequence of mastering language units can be individual, and the speed of their mastering is different in each specific situation.
It should also be taken into account that a simple knowledge of the Latvian language is not enough. It is necessary to be able to use it for the purpose of verbal communication. Minority children, regardless of what their first language is, face two difficult tasks: they need to master not only the content of education, but also a complex of communicative behavior. Not all children can cope with these tasks.
There is another important aspect of bilingualism. According to the point of view of J. Kamins, mastering a second language largely depends on the level of development of the first language. If the first language is developed so that the child is able to use it out of context, the acquisition of the second language is relatively easy. If the first language is poorly mastered or there is a risk of losing the first language, the acquisition of the second language may slow down noticeably.
The acquisition of a second language at school is also associated with the general abilities of the child and a special language (linguistic) talent. However, some authors do not recognize the leading role of the intellect in learning a foreign language (Baker 1998). Based on the model of probabilistic epigenesis by L.M. Vekker, it can be noted that in mixed communicative environments, the nature of environmental influences to which a child is exposed is complex in structure and content in comparison with a similar process in his monolingual peer. This circumstance stimulates much broader opportunities for reinforcing "waiting mechanisms" in the processing of "sound material" in potential bilinguals from the early stages of ontogeny. Thus, the development of the aspects of speech in bilingualism actually reflects the stages of mastering phonetics, mastering the vocabulary and the formation of the grammar of each language.
The emergence of new speech functions for two languages, appearing at all age stages of a child's development, also depends on the communicative environment and is closely related to its leading activity. Within the framework of each of them, the child masters the types of speech, i.e. linguistic means of two sign systems that ensure the implementation of the emerging function. During the school period, with the systematic teaching of the native and second languages, the child becomes aware of them, and this process also extends to new functions and types of speech. When considering the problem of bilingualism in the framework of the theory of speech activity (A.A. Leontiev 1964, I.A. Zimnyaya 2001, etc.), the importance and importance of creating special motivation when mastering a second language in sensitive periods were noted.
Another important issue is to establish the ratio of the hereditary and environmental factors in the speech ontogenesis of bilingualism (W.Penfield & L.Roberts 1991, E.H. Lenneberg 1967). The child's "spontaneous processing" of verbal material and understanding of speech at the early stages is the result of the hereditary ability of the neurophysiological structures of the human brain. This primarily refers to the isolation and combination of verbal signals, interaction or their comparison in accordance with the laws of the brain, as well as the creation of various forms of generalization. In fact, there is an innate ability of the child to build linguistic structures, and it is "not limited to predisposition" to only one sign system.
The genesis of the two fundamental functions of speech (communicative and semantic) in bilingualism acquires its own specifics, which is expressed in the fact that the processes of their formation are different, but the development of one stimulates and relies on the formation of the other, i.e. they are closely related. When considering the origins of the communicative function, it was revealed that the need for communication and its formation in mixed communicative environments is actually given to the child from the outside. At the same time, the adult mediates through verbal communication and the development of the semantic function of speech. In the speech development of a child, regardless of the type of assimilation of two languages, interference occurs, i.e. their lexico-grammatical confusions in statements.
The difference between the processes of language formation in children in a monolingual environment and in conditions of multilingualism is noted by N.Sh. Aleksandrova, generalizing the experience of correctional work with Russian-speaking children in Germany.
A similar position is found in the works of V.A. Kovshikov (1994), who believes that a second language for a child is another integral language system, and not additional language units. In the case of early bilingualism, the author writes, there is a change in the entire program for the implementation of the innate language ability, since the assimilation of a language is the assimilation of an integral system. The brain can change, modify its structure and function under the influence of changes in the environment or internal changes (Kolk 2000, Huttenlocher 2002, Thomas 2003). Children's multilingualism is possible as a result of plastic restructuring of the brain under the influence of the need to communicate in two or more languages. In any scenario of learning two languages at an early age, there is a pronounced tendency towards monolingualism. When a child who already speaks one language is immersed in a new language environment, this tendency is expressed in the impoverishment or complete loss of the first language (Porsche 1983, Pallier 2003, Jampert 2001). Simultaneous (simultaneous) learning of two languages shows the same tendency: one of the languages is quickly forgotten if the intensity of communication in this language decreases for some reason (Montanari 2002, Jonekeit 2002). Only the coexistence for a long time of two language environments necessary for the child (natural or artificially created) leads to bilingualism and allows it to be preserved. It seems that plasticity is aimed, on the one hand, at satisfying the most important need for communication, and, on the other hand, tends to economical use of brain resources and return to the original (monolingual) program. If with monolingualism we observe a consistent improvement of the child's language, then with multilingualism there are two opposite tendencies - the improvement of the language and its impoverishment. The purpose of plastic rearrangements that spontaneously occur in a bilingual environment is to provide the language communication that is needed at the moment, and only what is used is preserved. This is true for the second, third, and so on. languages. Brain plasticity helps to solve communication problems, but does not open a second language channel, does not trigger the mechanism for the development of a second language.
General pedagogical aspects of school education and teaching at an early age of school disciplines not in the native language are analyzed by V.V. Arshavsky in the work “The Differences that Unite Us”.
The author takes a position that is not shared by all researchers of the problem of bilingualism. According to V.V. Arshavsky, the second language should be studied after the mother tongue has been sufficiently mastered. To substantiate this point of view, V.V. Arshavsky uses a neuropsychological plan for considering the problem, in connection with which issues of pedagogy and intercultural relationships that arise in connection with the peculiarities of the types of hemispheric response to language are discussed. In particular, the qualitative originality of the human psyche and behavior, the nature of his social contacts, the tendency to one form or another of activity, according to V.V. Arshavsky, are largely due to the presence of two fundamentally different types of perception and processing of information associated with the asymmetry of the hemispheres that occurs in anthropogenesis big brain. It is generally accepted that the logical-verbal type is due to the activity of the left, and the spatial-figurative type is due to the activity of the right hemisphere. The predominant type of hemispheric response largely determines the level of psychophysiological adaptation of an individual to specific environmental conditions, creating the necessary prerequisites for turning on the mechanisms of search activity.
As V.V. Arshavsky shows, children with the left hemisphere type are more successful in mastering the exact sciences, and with the right hemisphere type, they are more successful in dealing with humanitarian subjects. The greatest success in all subjects is achieved by individuals with a mixed type of response, which is much less. A child with a figurative (right hemisphere) type of thinking is not able to perceive the logical schemes necessary for mastering the language. From the first school years, he finds himself in conditions of actual discrimination in comparison with children in whom the logical type of thinking dominates. His abilities for figurative thinking, for organizing a polysemantic context by the existing system of education are not only not stimulated, but even suppressed. At the same time, figurativeness is also extremely important for full language proficiency and, given its dominance at the initial stage of learning, a number of negative phenomena that otherwise occur can be avoided. On this occasion, V.V. Arshavsky writes: “It is quite obvious that teaching methods should contribute to the development of logical-verbal thinking not through its direct activation, but through the activation of figurative thinking. Children, especially those in whom the figurative type of information processing predominates, should be placed in conditions that provoke “discoveries” (which is inevitably associated with the activation of figurative thinking). They must pass in their cognition the natural path from "illumination" - through experiment - to the formulation of the law. Such a psychophysically substantiated system of education would provide (without including additional non-specific mechanisms of activation of the cerebral cortex by its stem formations, but only with the help of specific cortical structures) the assimilation of logically strict "exact" and natural sciences, unambiguous connections between objects and phenomena, and thereby would contribute to development of verbal-sign thinking. On the other hand, such a pedagogical system would not cause disgust for the humanities, since it does not suppress, but, on the contrary, enriches the possibilities of imaginative thinking, which is necessary not only for full-fledged aesthetic development, but also for any active creativity.
The author warns about the situation that may develop in Latvia with the implementation of an insufficiently thought-out and largely politicized bill on the urgent transfer of the teaching of various special exact and humanitarian disciplines in schools of national minorities from the mother tongue to the state (Latvian) language from the earliest school age, without taking into account the degree of individual readiness of children for bilingualism.
Moreover, V.V. Arshavsky notes in the same work: “Language is not so much a means of communication associated with the function of the left hemisphere, but an instrument of deep thinking. This thinking is formed in the earliest childhood under the influence of contacts with parents on the basis of a figurative right-brain type of information processing. The native language is the source of the whole life of the individual, his soul, his past and present. Only at the age of 9 - 14 years, when the formation of the type of hemispheric response and structures that provide a superficial expression of thought in speech is completed, when the ability to reveal the thought not only for oneself, but also to convey it to other people, one can make an attempt to think not only in the native language, but also in a newly learned language. This does not mean that you should not learn other languages at an early age. We are talking about the danger of a forced translation of thinking into another language. The native language should remain dominant in thought processes.
According to the views of V.V. Arshavsky, teaching at an early age school disciplines not in the native, but in a poorly mastered non-native language, is not only ineffective in learning the language itself, not to mention understanding the meaning of the subject being taught, but also dangerous for the normal mental development of the child. The problem of the “silent child” arises - deep (right hemisphere) thought does not receive a logical conclusion in surface speech (left hemisphere) thinking. The child cannot understand himself, discover and realize his creative potential, and even more so convey it to the teacher. As a result, "pedagogical neglect" may develop - the basis for overdiagnosis of mental retardation, the formation of "learned helplessness" and a high risk of linguapsychosis, neuroses and psychosomatic disorders.
For all the value of the ideas postulating the priority importance of the native language for the development of the child, his upbringing and education, it should be noted that there is another point of view in the literature. It consists in the assertion that the parallel study of two or more languages has a purely positive - stimulating and developing - effect on the child's psyche.
Authors of the book “Bilingual Education. Theory and Practice”, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences R. Aliyev and Master of Pedagogy N. Kazhe believe that in the modern world it is not only interesting to comprehend sciences in several languages, but, above all, it is necessary. They emphasize that school bilingual education is an element of preparing any child for life in a multicultural society, and the child's own or native cultural environment is not only not suppressed, but emphasized and developed in the light of comparisons and enrichment with the environment of the second language. “If we consider the school as a model of human society (or a society in miniature), it turns out that it is the bilingual school that is the most accurate approximation to the life of a modern multicultural society.” The class, they write, is also a small model of society. It has a social order and an accepted culture of behavior. Students are largely responsible for the "lifestyle" adopted in the classroom. The duties of the teacher, in addition to purely educational functions, include monitoring the ideas generated in the classroom, as well as maintaining a certain social order, and the modern teacher performs his functions in interaction with students. At present, the teacher in the school is not a commander, as was the case with the traditional approach to education, but a leader. Modern education helps students acquire the skills necessary for existence in society, and the acquired academic knowledge should help students in the future to be involved in solving social problems. Thus, the role of the bilingual teacher is growing, due to its dual function serving as a guide for students in a multilingual world. The teacher brings his students closer to the problems of real life, as if "immersing" them in the modern world and at the same time, taking on the function of a pioneer or, as he is called, "facilitator". It turned out that bilingual teachers, due to the specifics of their activities, which require an incessant search for common ground and modification of techniques, are much more flexible in their approaches and methods. They regularly have to focus not on one solution, but on trying to reconcile several solutions. Thus, it was bilingual teachers who were the first to begin rapprochement with the democratic traditions of the European education system” (R. Aliyev, N. Kazhe 2005).
It is known that the study of native and second languages, the use of two languages as a means of teaching in school practice inevitably leads to interlingual interference in the speech of schoolchildren. In psycholinguistics, linguodidactics, traditionally, more attention is paid to the influence of the native language of students on the process of mastering their second and foreign languages. The “reverse” problem, namely, how the second language (in our case, Latvian) affects the quality of mastering the native language by children (including the development of spelling and punctuation literacy of schoolchildren), has not been sufficiently studied in modern science. The results of our study indicate that such an influence takes place, and the problems that arise as a result of this need to be addressed. From the point of view of psycholinguistics, interlinguistic interference is a violation of the rules for correlating contacting languages, which manifests itself in a person’s speech as a deviation from the norm. From the point of view of linguodidactics, interlingual interference is an erroneous identification by schoolchildren of the facts of two languages and the transfer of knowledge and skills from one language to another, leading to speech errors. Interlingual interference, according to scientists, is an ambiguous phenomenon. On the one hand, negative, because “it floats to the surface” in the form of errors in the speech of schoolchildren (pronunciation, semantic, grammatical, etc.). On the other hand, this is an objective and inevitable phenomenon in situations of bilingual education, which means that it requires the search for effective ways to overcome it. At the same time, the main question is precisely which paths should be considered effective. An analysis of the studies of psycholinguists, neurolinguists, linguodidacticians who study this problem in the context of various variants of bilingualism allows us to formulate didactic prerequisites for overcoming
Thus, the analysis of the literature on the problem under study shows that bilingual education is interpreted ambiguously. There are contradictions in his assessment and the need for a number of clarifications.
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T. A. Kruglyakova
Problems of studying bilingualism: a book to read
From the history of studying the problems of multilingualism
The relevance of discussing the problems of multilingualism in the modern world is undeniable. For a long time, bilingualism has been the norm rather than the exception, and interest in learning foreign languages necessitates the development of new teaching methods based on understanding the psychological mechanisms of language proficiency and mastery and on a comparative study of the speaker's first and second language systems.
Over the past fifty years, a huge number of works have appeared on the issues of mastering a second native and foreign language in natural and educational conditions, the features of the functioning of the language in the minds of bilingual speakers, the phenomenon of language attrition - the loss of language, the role of the first language in mastering the second, the specifics of bilingual errors, etc. Modern means of storing information allow you to quickly access dissertations of recent years and articles published in modern journals. Nevertheless, the traditions of studying the problems of multilingualism are often beyond the scope of the interest of young scientists. It often happens that "blind references" to authoritative names wander from study to study as a result of thoughtless rewriting without attempting to interpret the views of predecessors. However, the colossal experience accumulated by modern science is in many respects really based on the works of psychologists and linguists of the past, which anticipated much of what is said in modern publications.
The phenomenon of multilingualism has existed for centuries, and the tales and legends that have come down to us indicate that people have long tried to find the causes of linguistic diversity: the biblical legend of the Babylonian pandemonium tells of the emergence of different dialects as a punishment for human pride, an act of divine will draws a separation of languages in the sacred hymns of the Rigveda and in the Koran, many peoples, such as the Iroquois, believe that people have lost their common language as a result of quarrels between relatives or friends.
In modern times, the first attempts to overcome linguistic disunity arise: philosophers are working on the creation of universal rational languages that would be devoid of the errors of living languages. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay commented on the prehistory of their creation in the following way: “The idea of an international language as a connector for multilingual people arose a long time ago, a very long time ago. We can say that its germ was a necessary consequence of the fact that people realized, on the one hand, multilingualism, and on the other, the unity of the human race and the need for mutual communication. From the yearning for linguistic unity, the legend of the Babylonian pandemonium was born; for polyphony was considered a disaster, it was considered a divine punishment for human pride and arrogance. The desire for linguistic unity was one and nothing more than a pretext for the realization of love for one's neighbor, that is, for the persecution of the "neighbor" and for mockery of him<…>In the name of linguistic unity countless crimes, persecutions and exterminations were committed” [Baudouin de Courtenay 2010: 158]. When multilingualism ceases to be perceived as a punishment and a curse, not only “language creation” flourishes (in the 80s of the XIX century, Volapuk and Esperanto appeared one after another), but a serious study of the problems of bilingualism begins.
Linguists of the 19th century sought mainly to comprehend the paths of language development since ancient times, and to restore what the proto-language looked like - the language of the pre-literate era that underlies related dialects. In science, the comparative historical method dominated, the essence of which was to compare dialects and closely related languages in order to restore the forms that characterize the state of the language that existed in the era of linguistic community. One of the most influential scientific schools of the late 19th century was neogrammatism. The ideologists of this trend called for a careful study of living languages, which, in their opinion, should have helped to discover the most ancient words and forms and clarify knowledge of linguistic history. Scientists deduced the laws of sound and grammatical changes and considered the processes of divergence - linguistic "splitting", during which modern languages were formed from the common Proto-Indo-European language. Of course, some facts contradicted the derived linguistic laws, but the impossibility of explaining these facts was attributed to the imperfection of linguistic methods and was considered as research errors that could and should be corrected later.
It was the neogrammarists who, having created a powerful tool for analyzing the paths of linguistic divergence, thought about the reverse process - convergence. In a monograph devoted to the ways of language changes, G. Paul (1846–1921) devoted a small but separate chapter to language mixing, noting both lexical borrowings, and the creation of cripples - literal translations, and the borrowing of morphemes. The German linguist, who was one of the first to pay attention to the speaking person and noted the need to analyze individual linguistic features, believed that in order to study the mixing of languages, it is necessary to investigate the consciousness of a bilingual person, in whose speech language changes appear, which later find development in the language of the collective.
Gradually, more and more scientists in different countries came to the conclusion about the limitations of the neo-grammatical teaching, which sought to squeeze a variety of language changes into the Procrustean bed of phonetic and grammatical laws. The object of attention of linguists is the linguistic features that appeared as a result of the phenomenon of convergence, or linguistic mixing, as it was called at that time. The Austrian researcher G. Schuchardt (1842–1927) turned to the study of those languages in which mixing is most obvious, and laid the foundation for creolistics, a scientific direction that studies pidgins and creoles, auxiliary languages that arose on the basis of mixing. The theory of the language substrate arises and develops, the founder of which is called the Italian scientist G.I. Ascoli (1829–1907), who discovered Semitic borrowings in the Etruscan language. The substrate is called the traces of the conquered language of the indigenous population in the composition of the conquering language of the newcomers; later they begin to write about similar phenomena: superstratum - traces of the conquered alien language in the composition of the victorious language of the native population and adstratum - two layers of coexisting languages, none of which dominates the other. The theory of the substrate helped to explain a lot in the historical development of languages and inevitably focused the attention of linguists on the speaking person, since it is in the speech of individual individuals that confusion gradually begins, leading to general language changes.
In the Russian Empire, one of the first scientists to talk about linguistic confusion was the famous Polish and Russian linguist Ivan Alexandrovich (Jan Nechislav Ignacy) Baudouin de Courtenay (1845–1929). Baudouin de Courtenay was born in Warsaw into a very noble but impoverished Polish family. He not only grew up bilingual since childhood, closely studied the mind of a speaking person, including a polyglot, carefully recorded the speech of his own children, but also led an active struggle for the rights of “small” languages and their speakers. Baudouin de Courtenay wrote: “The study of individual individuals throws light on historical changes in language in general. True, linguistics is almost unable to set up experiments, to direct them consciously and according to the will of the experimenter, experiments of the kind that play such a significant role in the natural sciences. But the direct observation of phenomena, the extraction of scientific facts from them, can be applied in linguistics on the widest scale. And it is on individuals that we can investigate some phenomena in an enlarged form or much more directly than is the case when investigating such an abstraction as tribal or folk language” [Baudouin de Courtenay 1963: 227].
Pupils and followers of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay begin to carefully analyze the individual mistakes of polyglots in different language areas. Articles by V.A. Bogoroditsky (1857–1941), devoted to the analysis of lexical and grammatical errors of Russians in German speech and Germans in Russian, as well as in written works on the Russian language of Tatar schoolchildren, the works of E.D. Polivanov (1891–1938), who studied various forms of phonetic interference in various languages of the peoples of the world, the observations of L.V. Shcherba (1880–1944) laid the foundation for the linguistic study of the phenomenon of multilingualism over “negative language material”.
Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, bilingualism was considered by linguists both as an individual and as a social phenomenon. Much later, in 1961, U. Weinreich proposed to distinguish between “microscopic” and “macroscopic” approaches: ““Microscopic” consideration of the phenomena of language contact on the material of the behavior of individual bilingual speakers can be opposed to a “macroscopic” study of the results of the impact of one language on another. In the "microscopic" approach, the consequences of bilingualism are considered against the background of the linguistic behavior of monolingual speakers. In the "macroscopic" approach, we compare the language, which is considered as having undergone the action of contact, with regions of the same language adjacent in space or time, which are assumed to have not been affected by the action of contact" [Weinreich 1972: 32]. However, for a long time, the study of individual multilingualism in the works of linguists often had only an auxiliary character. In the article “On the problems of mixing languages,” the Czech Slavist Bohuslav Havranek (1893–1978) wrote: “Individual bilingualism can become an object of linguistic research, but only as a symptom, and not as a fact of the specific development of the language” [Havranek 1972: 96]. A. Martinet (1908–1999), a French linguist who for many years led one of the most authoritative communities of linguists, the European Linguistic Society, spoke about the same: “The fact that Cicero was the bearer of Latin-Greek bilingualism left indelible marks in our modern dictionary. However, individual multilingualism (precisely because it is less likely to affect the most fully structured aspects of the language, namely phonological and morphological patterns), will always seem to remain in the background, and the attention of linguists will be turned to collective bilingualism as a result of the spread of a new language. for the whole team” [Martinet 1972: 85].
Individual bilingualism in Europe in the first half of the 20th century first became the main object of pedagogical and psychological studies, which aimed to find out how mastering two languages affects the development of the intellect, whether early bilingualism benefits or harms the child. In 1915, I. Epstein, who worked within the school of associative psychology and studied the speech behavior of bilingual children in Switzerland, put forward the hypothesis that, since thinking is based on associations between concepts and words, in a child who masters two languages, associations are formed conflict with each other. This hypothesis has generated a lot of controversy and contributed to new research. A little earlier, in 1913, Jules Ronge (1864–1925), a French linguist, specialist in the field of Provencal and Occitan, wrote the book “The Development of the Speech of a Bilingual Child”, in which he traces the speech development of his son Louis, who spoke French with his father , and with his mother in German. According to J. Ronge, continuous and consistent use of the “one person – one language” principle in communication with a child leads to successful mastery of the phonological systems of both languages and does not harm the child. Later, the conclusions of the French researcher were confirmed by many scientists: one of the founders of child psychology, the German researcher William Stern (1871–1938), the author of the four-volume work “Speech Development of a Bilingual Child” by Werner Leopold, who studied the speech of his daughters, who simultaneously mastered English and French, and others. The famous Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky (1896–1934) also did not accept I. Epstein's hypothesis: he criticized the theoretical postulates of associative psychology and pointed out possible methodological shortcomings of contemporary research.
Psychological research also prompted searches in the field of foreign language teaching methods, the development of basic methods of communication with a bilingual child, and the organization of the speech input surrounding the child.
The work of psychologists, on the one hand, and the close attention of linguists to individual speech errors, on the other, made it possible to lay the foundation for a new branch of knowledge. EAT. Vereshchagin identifies three main areas in modern research on bilingualism: “Psychology - from the point of view of the mechanisms of speech production - the psychology of bilingualism. Linguistics is the theory of language contacts. Sociology - the behavior and place of a bilingual person or group of people in society - the sociology of bilingualism" [Vereshchagin 1969: 3-4]. The foundations of the modern theory of language interaction were laid by the American linguists Einar Haugen (1906-1994), the author of an exhaustive study of the language of one of the immigrant groups "Norwegian in America", and Uriel Weinreich (1926-1967), the creator of the fundamental work "Language Contacts". In the book by U. Weinreich, all three aspects of language interaction were considered.
Further study of bilingualism is connected both with the detailed development of each aspect separately, and with the construction of an integrated theory of the interaction of languages. But, probably, it should be recognized that the science of language interactions and the mechanisms of simultaneous or sequential mastering of two languages is still under development.
In the afterword to the book "Issues of the theory of mastering a second language in the psycholinguistic aspect" A.A. Zalevskaya, who undertook an analysis of modern, including Western, studies of the problems of bilingualism, wrote: “I want to express the hope that what is presented in it [in the book. - T.K.] information and considerations to some extent can contribute to the formation of a new generation of researchers who are not burdened by the burden of habitual postulates bordering on prejudices, and who do not accept any authoritative statement as the ultimate truth" [Zalevskaya 1996: 178]. We believe that familiarization with primary sources, self-comprehension of "authoritative statements" will also certainly allow readers to form the most complete picture of ideas about the essence of bilingualism, will contribute to the formation of a culture of scientific research.
The book contains works by representatives of various scientific disciplines: psychology, linguistics, psycho- and sociolinguistics. Articles and fragments introduce the reader to the opinions of representatives of different schools and trends, scientists whose works have long been considered classics, and modern researchers.
In some cases, we were forced to select only individual fragments from classical works, which is always fraught with the danger of misinterpreting the author's ideas. We hope, however, that the interested reader, before making hasty conclusions, will certainly turn to the full versions of books and articles, having analyzed and compared the positions of different scientists.
Literature
Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Auxiliary international language // Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Linguistics and language research, remarks, lecture program. – M.: URSS, 2010. – S. 157–173.
Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. On the common causes of language changes // Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Selected works on general linguistics. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - T. 1. - S. 221-254.
Weinrich U. Monolingualism and multilingualism // New in linguistics. - Issue. 6: Language contacts. - M.: Publishing House of Foreign Literature, 1972. - S. 25–61.
Vereshchagin E.M. Psychological and methodological characteristics of the typology of bilingualism (bilingualism). - M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1969.
Gavranek B. On the problems of mixing languages // New in linguistics. - Issue. 6: Language contacts. - M .: Publishing House of Foreign Literature, 1972. - S. 91–112.
Zalevskaya A.A. Questions of the theory of mastering a second language in the psycholinguistic aspect. - Tver: TVGU, 1996.
Martine A. Spread of language and structural linguistics // New in linguistics. - Issue. 6: Language contacts. – M.: Publishing House of Foreign Literature, 1972. – P. 81–93.
G. Paul
Hermann Otto Theodor Paul (1846–1921) - German linguist, the largest specialist in the field of phonetics and grammar of the Germanic languages. G. Paul's book "Principles of the History of Language", published in 1880, became the main work that summarized the views of representatives of one of the influential scientific schools in linguistics of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. - neogrammatism. The neo-grammarists, like most linguists of the 19th century, were engaged in the study of the history of language, but, deriving strict phonetic and morphological laws of language changes, they argued that the roots of these changes lie in the mind of the speaking individual. Only the language of the individual was proclaimed a reality, and a psychic reality at that. Considering the issues of language changes, G. Paul is one of the first to devote an entire chapter of his research not only to linguistic divergence - the division of a common language into separate dialects, but also to the mixing of languages, primarily paying attention to lexical borrowings, calques, shifts in the meaning and sound of a word , borrowing affixes. The scientist focuses on collective bilingualism and its impact on the historical development of the language, but a serious analysis of linguistic mixing, as G. Paul notes, cannot be done without taking into account the role of bilingual individuals in this process.
Confusion of languages (fragment)
// Paul G. Principles of the history of language. - M .: Publishing House of Foreign Literature, 1960. - S. 459-474.
Proceeding from the point of view that there are no languages other than individual ones, we are justified in saying that the mixing of languages occurs continuously, during every conversation between two individuals. Indeed, in this case, each of the speakers affects those complexes of ideas (Vorstellungmassen) of his interlocutor that relate to the language.<…>
We will first look at the mixing of two distinctly different languages. In order to understand how mixing occurs, of course, we need to take into account the role of individuals in this process. The impetus for confusion is most often the presence of bilingual individuals who speak several languages, or at least understand at least one language other than their mother tongue. In any case, a certain minimum understanding of the language is required here. After all, what is acquired from a foreign language must be understood to some extent, perhaps not quite accurately, but nevertheless understood.
It is clear that the conditions for bilingualism or a more or less free understanding of a foreign language are present primarily on the borders between two adjacent linguistic territories, but they are not equally favorable everywhere, which depends on the intensity of communication between these nations. Of certain importance are also the journeys of individuals to foreign countries and their temporary stay in the territory of another language; a more prominent role is played by the constant migration of certain groups of people, an even more important role is played by mass migration from one country to another, conquest and colonization. Finally, knowledge of a foreign language can be acquired without direct contact with the respective people through writing. In this case, acquaintance with a foreign language usually remains the property of a certain stratum, distinguished by the level of education. Thanks to written sources, language material can be borrowed not only from living foreign languages, but also from distant periods in the development of the native language.
Where there has been a far-reaching crossing of two peoples, bilingualism becomes a very common phenomenon, and with it the mutual influence of languages \u200b\u200bon each other begins. If at the same time one of the peoples is somehow superior to the other - in its numbers, or in political and economic power, or in spiritual terms - then its language begins to be used more and more widely, pushing the other into the background; in the end, bilingualism is again replaced by the dominance of one language. Depending on the strength of the resistance offered by the defeated language, this process may be somewhat faster or somewhat slower, and the traces left by this language in the winning language may be more or less deep.
In the case of an individual, confusion is also not reduced to a simple mixing of elements of two different languages; it is difficult to imagine that the speech of an individual could consist of heterogeneous elements, mixed approximately equally. If he is equally proficient in two languages, he will perhaps very easily pass from one of them to the other, but still, within a single phrase, one language will always be the basis of his speech, while the other will play only a secondary role. , however, while introducing more or less significant changes to the main language. It is clear that all this applies even more to someone who has not acquired the skills of speaking in a foreign language, but only understands it to some extent. For someone who speaks two languages, each of them, of course, can influence the other, a foreign language - on his native and native - on a foreign one. The influence of the native language, as a rule, is stronger. As long as a foreign language is not fully mastered, this is inevitable. However, the influence of someone else's speech on their native language sometimes becomes very strong, this takes place where people consciously succumb to it, most often due to the fact that they put a foreign language and foreign culture above domestic ones. There is also a certain difference between different types of mutual influence. It must be assumed that foreign words penetrate into a particular language in most cases directly through those individuals for whom this language is native. But, on the other hand, the assimilated foreign language itself is also inevitably modified due to the substitution of sounds and the influence of the internal form of the native language.
But although the impetus for the emergence of the influence of one language on the other comes, undoubtedly, from individuals who speak - even to a very limited extent - both languages, nevertheless, due to equalization in the process of communication, this influence can spread even wider within the language community, subjugating and those individuals who have no direct contact with the foreign element. At the same time, the latter are influenced not only by their compatriots, but in some cases also by representatives of a foreign people who have mastered their language. Of course, these individuals will perceive foreign language elements only very slowly and in small quantities.
ESSAY
The phenomenon of bilingualism. Typologies, causes and development of bilingualism
Introduction ................................................ ................................................3
Advantages and limitations of bilingualism...............................................4
Typologies of bilingualism .............................................................. .......................7
Benefits and limitations of bilingualism...............................................10
Conclusion................................................. ............................................13
Bibliography................................................ ...............................fourteen
Introduction
The problem of bilingualism is one of the central problems in modern linguistics.
The phenomenon of bilingualism is a complex complex phenomenon that is the subject of research in various sciences, such as linguistics, sociology, psychology, methods of teaching foreign languages, etc.
The problem of bilingualism in Russian and foreign many works are devoted to literature, starting with the works of such outstanding scientists as L. Shcherba, G. Vereshchagin, U. Weinreich, as well as V. Avrorin, A. Zalevskaya; however, among researchers there are a lot of disagreements and contradictions, which indicates the need to systematize knowledge on the topic. In addition, the problem of the correlation of cultures in the inculcation of bilingualism is little disclosed, which is determined by choice of work topic.
In that work the basic concepts of pheno are given men
Advantages and limitations of bilingualism
P With the development of international contacts, an increasing number of people in all countries of the world are not limited to their native language, they read, talk, listen to radio broadcasts, write at least to a small extent in the second, third. This is how bilingualism starts.
Bilingualism (lat. Bi - two, lingua - language) -this is bilingualism, i.e. the coexistence of a person or the whole people of two languages, usually the first - native, and the second acquired.
The following definitions of the concept of "bilingualism" are found in the literature:
P practice of interchangeable use of two languages;
AT proficiency in two languages and the ability to communicate successfully with them (even with minimal knowledge of languages);
O equally perfect knowledge of two languages, the ability to equally use them in the necessary conditions of communication I.
A person who is able to use only one language system, only his native language, is called a monolingual. People who speak two languages are called bilinguals, more than two - polylinguals, more than six - polyglots. Since language is a function of social groupings, being bilingual means belonging to two different social groups at the same time.
In literature m You can also meet such a less strict definition: a bilingual is one who can perform a communicative act in a second language, achieve mutual understanding. According to this criterion, many people can be considered bilingual, at least on the basis of school study of English, German, French.
According to the most stringent criteria, a bilingual is a person who speaks and thinks with equal ease in both his native and second languages. According to this criterion, a person who, in the process of speaking, is forced to mentally form an upcoming statement in his native language (at least partially) and immediately translate it into a second language, cannot be considered bilingual.
Relatively few meet such a strict criterion: among the representatives of the peoples of Russia, Tatars, Yakuts, Jews, Germans, Ossetians and many others who received education in Russian; there are many Russians in neighboring countries. Many well-known cultural figures, writers who spoke and wrote in two or more languages with equal ease can be named: A.D. Cantemir (oriental languages), A.C. Pushkin, I.S. Turgenev (French), V.V. Nabokov, I. Brodsky (English), I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay (French, Polish) and many others.
The theory of bilingualism considerscausesbi- and multilingualism, i.e. social sources . Contact types:
a) the common territory of residence of people of different nationalities (mixed population).Several tens or even hundreds of nationalities can live in one city, they are all bilingual, unless, of course, they have forgotten their native language.There is also an increased percentage of bilinguals in adjacent territories, near the borders.In some states (Switzerland, Canada) they communicate freely in two or three languages.There are also quite a few countries in which there is an inequality of languages, sometimes leading to acute conflict situations. But despite the conflicts, bilingualism is both inevitable and necessary;
b) emigration and immigration for political, economic reasons. On the basis of the resettlement, some great multinational and multilingual states have developed;
c) economic, cultural ties, tourism and, alas, wars. All these reasons not only contribute to the migration of people and the mixing of languages, but also stimulate the development and study of languages.
d) education and science: non-native foreign languages are studied in all countries in secondary schools and universities, in families, by the method of self-education, etc.
Knowledge of languages enriches a person spiritually, develops his intellect, opens up the possibilities of education for him, allows him to read foreign literature, scientific works in the original, travel around the world, communicate with people without an interpreter.
Over the past two centuries, a theory and methodology for teaching non-native languages has developed, both scientific forces and practical teachers have been trained. The problems of the named science: comparative, comparative study of the taught and native languages in the fields of phonology, grammar, vocabulary and word formation, etc.; interference study(impact) native language when learning a foreign language and finding ways to overcome interference; description of the language being studied for educational purposes and selection of theoretical and practical material for study, inclusion in textbooks, etc.; substantiation of methods for studying non-native languages, their verification, comparative study of the effectiveness of a particular method; development of practical methods and so-called learning technologies; the study of the psycholinguistic foundations of mastering the second, third languages, the study of the mechanisms of their interaction, in particular translation from one language into another language; study of the ways of formation of the so-called early childhood bilingualism.
In Russia, the problems of teaching foreign languages and Russian as a foreign language are dealt with by A.A. Mirolyubov, I.L. Bim, V.G. Kostomarov, O.D. Mitrofanova, V.G. Gak, A.A. Leontiev, E.I. Passov and many others.
Typologies of bilingualism
Consider the typologies of bilingualism.
There are the followingtypes of bilingualism.
To coordination (full) and subordinate(incomplete) bilingualism. first nth involves the coordination of native and non-native languages; in the second type, speech in a non-native language is subordinate to the native language.
Subordination is so called because the speaker thinks and goes through the preparatory stages of speech in his native language, and the transition to an acoustic or graphic code is complicated by the translation of vocabulary and grammar from his native language into a foreign one. At the same time, he does not always successfully find correct matches in the second language; interference phenomena may increase sharply(violations) not only in phonetics, but also in vocabulary and syntax.
With the coordination type of bilingualism, all preparatory, internal, mental operations proceed in the second language; in difficult cases, the function of self-control of the speaker or writer is added, but with full knowledge of the second language, the control function disappears.
There can be no sharp boundary between coordinating, complete, and subordinate, incomplete, bilingualism. In other words, there is usually a transition period to full bilingualism. Complete coordination bilingualism is not disputed even by maximalists; intermediate stages are disputed, although they usually achieve the goal of communication.
According to the number of learned speech actions, receptive and productive types are distinguished.The receptive type provides only the perception of speech in the second language, and most often the printed text is perceived, giving the reader time to comprehend it, which allows the use of a dictionary. This type of bilingualism is very common among scientists, engineers, and other specialists: they read their special works, successfully extract the information they need from them, but cannot speak freely. It is not uncommon to successfully compose a written text first on a draft.
The productive type involves not only perception, but also the production of oral and written speech, the ability to freely express one's thoughts in a non-native language according to a subordination or even coordination type. It should be noted that many bilinguals of the productive type, who easily and freely express their thoughts in a second language, can neither read nor write in it. So these two types of bilingualism can only be assessed from the standpoint of the needs of life.
A special case of bilingualism is such a frequent option when the subject freely uses texts in a foreign language, while he does not have a holistic communicative competence in this language.
According to the conditions of occurrence, natural and artificial bilingualism are distinguished.
The first occurs most often in early childhood under the influence of a multilingual environment..
Artificial bilingualism is formed in the learning process. It should not be forgotten that in the learning process, in accordance with teaching methods, situations are introduced that imitate natural life: these are various kinds of role-playing games, theatrical classes, “full immersion” in the atmosphere of the language being studied, excluding translation from the native. Methods that limit translation and even completely exclude it gradually develop inner speech in the target language.
In recent decades, intensive methods of study have been used, excluding any distractions, revealing the hidden reserves of consciousness and the unconscious. Such is suggestopedia, using the power of suggestion (in Russia, this technique was described by G.I. Kitaigorodskaya).
At 60 - In the 1970s, there were discussions between supporters of direct methods of teaching a foreign language through verbal communication (these were attempts to introduce natural situations into the artificial formation of bilingualism) and supporters of grammar-translation methods. Echoes of old disputes are still heard today, however, it is undoubted that there was a synthesis of methods based on the concepts of communicative competence of trainees and their linguistic and linguistic competence.
Consider children's bilingualism: this phenomenon has long attracted researchers of the mechanisms of language acquisition based on the speech environment.
The earlier the influence of two or even three languages on the child through speech in these languages begins, the weaker the interference of the native language, the stronger and more stable the skill. Examples of early bilingualism give reason to believe that in the period before 3- 5 years, when a linguistic flair is born, i.e. the assimilation of the system of the language, of what is natural in it, each of the languages has its own physiological base. It is possible that it was precisely such assimilation of languages that V.D. Arakin:"Every Language System".
At higher levels of study, the native language is studied as a norm: variants, exceptions to the rules, connotations. All this makes it difficult to master the language as a system.
In early childhood, the language is acquired without volitional efforts and linguistic generalizations are formed internally, unconsciously. Later, such assimilation does not disappear, but it is less effective.
By proximity, by kinship of languages, closely related and non-closely related types of bilingualism are distinguished.At first glance, the first type is easier. But this ease really takes place only at the early stages of mastering a second language, and later, at the advanced stages of learning, difficulties begin: the differences between languages turn out to be subtle and almost insurmountable. It is extremely difficult to get rid of the accent in pronunciation, to avoid mistakes in word compatibility, to go to the correct stress system, do not make a mistake in intonation and etc.
Let's turn to the physiological foundations of bilingualism, to hypotheses and disputes in this area.
In essence, all stages of generating an utterance: and speech intention(the intention of the speaker to express some communicatively significant meaning),and the definition of the content plan, and language structuring, and the mechanism of code transitions, and the stages of perception of the statement- are universal for all languages that an individual speaks (with the coordination type of bilingualism).
Benefits and limitations of bilingualism
Only those blocks of speech action are different in which associations are formed and the utterance itself is formed. It is logical to assume that each of the languages that a bilingual speaks should have its own base. With complete, coordinating, bilingualism, with the so-called "full immersion" in a non-native language, these two bases should work independently of each other; only with the volitional effort of the speaker does the interaction of systems occur and the speaker can switch to another language. Therefore, even complete immersion in a second language is not uncontrolled, it is manageable.
With coordinating bilingualism, the organs of speech production perform an additional action that is not present in the process of native speech: this is translation from language to language, the search for words of the second language for translation.
Apparently, the physiological basis of bilingualism and polylingualism is as complex and redundant as the whole world of human speech and language is complex and provided with reserves.
Here it is appropriate to return to early childhood bilingualism.
The phenomenon of natural, sometimes almost imperceptible, acquisition of a second language by a child who only speaks his native language, which occurs in play and in live communication, never ceases to amaze researchers.But doubts also arose: does the second language interfere with the first, native.
This debatable problem was addressed in 1928 by the largest authority on the psychology of speech- J.I. C. Vygotsky. In the article "On the issue of multilingualism in childhood" he entered into a controversy with Epstein, who conducted a study in 1915 in Switzerland of early childhood bilingualism. Epstein argued that between language systems, each of which is connected with thought by associative links, antagonism arises, which ultimately leads to the impoverishment of the native language and even to general mental retardation.
L.S. Vygotsky, relying on his own research, as well as on the publications of the French linguist Ronge, argues the opposite: in his opinion, the interaction of different language systems not only does not lead to the inhibition of mental development, but actually contributes to the development[3, p. 331] . Especially high L.S. Vygotsky appreciates the fact that two or even three language systems develop independently of one another, i.e. translation is not required. Let us add to this that in difficult cases, a child, like an adult, can turn to his native language.
Analyzing the literatureearly bilingualism is facilitated by the personification of languages (the language of father and mother, grandmother) and different language groups: at home or in kindergarten, later- at home, at school.
In favor of early bilingualism is the fact that among many middle-aged people, whose intelligence is widely recognized, there is a high percentage of early bilinguals..
However, the doubters do not admit their defeat, they say that the children who suffered from early bilingualism are simply not known to us, perhaps there are not so few of them. In the 1950s, the Lithuanian psychologist J. Jacikevicius opposed the early study of the Russian language, citing Epstein's experience. However, the controversy has not stopped the general growing desire for early language learning: it is celebrated all over the world.
The problem of the physiological foundations of bilingualism is directly related to the phenomenon of transfer of skills: transposition and interference.
The transfer of skills in psychology has been studied on the example of various types of activity; transfer of language skills- one of the problems studied by linguodidactics. The learning model is usually:
- comparison of native and studied languages, their comparative typology;
- lists of similarities (for positive transfer- transposition) and areas of differences (area of negative transfer- interference);
- development of techniques and exercises to support transposition and to fight, long and difficult, with interference phenomena in the field of pronunciation, grammar, etc.
The developing function of comparisons of two or more languages in speech, in text analysis, and in the study of language theory was written by such well-known Russian linguists as F.I. Buslaev, A.D. Alferov, L.V. Shcherba, V.G. Kostomarov, A.B. Tekuchev. Numerous examples confirm: a person who speaks several languages reveals a high level of cognitive interests, a lively creative mind.
Conclusion
So, in this work were given the basic concepts of pheno men in bilingualism, the advantages and limitations of bilingualism, the typology of bilingualism, the causes of its occurrence and development are considered.
Having considered various approaches to the definition of bilingualism, we have derived our own working definition of bilingualism: a person's possession of two different language systems to a degree sufficient for a clear and precise presentation of his thoughts in the necessary situation.
O The main reason for the appearance of bilingualism are social factors..
The following types of bilingualism are distinguished: coordination and subordination, receptive and productive, natural and artificial.
Advantages and limitations of bilingualism:
Bilingualism contributes to the all-round development of the personality of the childand an adult, which in the process of parallel learning of several languages, developing you know, you know the world and yourself.
Since bilingualism occurs where there is contact between several cultures, it contributes to the enrichment of the individual with the cultural values of different peoples.
However, the phenomenon of bilingualism can also cause a contradiction in the personality of a child or an adult who studies several foreign languages, since different languages and different cultures express different attitudes towards the same phenomena in the life of society.
Bibliography
1. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. - M.: Aspect Press, 1996. - 376s.
2. Great Soviet Encyclopedia [electronic resource] M.: Scientific publishing house "Great Russian Encyclopedia", 2002.
3. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works: In 6 vols. - M., 1983. - Vol. 3. 368 p. )
4. Lvov M.R. Fundamentals of the theory of speech: Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook establishments. M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2002, - 248 p.
5. Speech communication inconditions of linguistic heterogeneity. - M. : Editorial, 2000. - 221s.
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