In the 17th century Many crafts are developing: textiles, mining, tanning, construction, woodworking, metallurgy, paper production, glass, printing, jewelry, etc. Surface ore (swamp, meadow, lake) is mined, including beyond the Urals and in Western Siberia. In peasant production, ore smelting was carried out by hand: bellows were blown and reduced iron was forged, taken out of the furnace. In water-powered manufactories, this process is mechanized and it becomes possible to obtain cast iron, and with its secondary smelting, high-quality iron. A trade that required the use of technology was salt making. There were salty brewhouses in the central districts, in the Novgorod region, in Pomorie and in the east of the Zamoskovny region. By the end of the century, there were up to 200 salt-making mines in the Kama region. In them, as in the fur trades of Siberia, the fishing of the Murman and Caspian Seas, hired labor was mainly used.
Gradually, the craft acquires the features of small-scale production. In Yaroslavl, Kazan, Kaluga, the number of craft specialties reached 200, and in Moscow - up to 250. There are centers for metalworking (Pomorie, Serpukhov, Tula), leather production (Yaroslavl, Kazan), wood processing (Kaluga, Vyatka), salt making (Staraya Russa, Sol Kamskaya), etc. At the same time, raw materials could be imported from other areas, which ensured independence from local resources. There is a growth of craft villages, to end of XVII V. there were at least 400 of them. Experienced artisans from other cities and foreign specialists were concentrated in Moscow. There were manufacturing-type enterprises - the Cannon Yard, the Mint, and the Powder Mill. Kodashevskaya and Khamovnicheskaya settlements represented a type of scattered weaving manufactory.
In the second half of the 17th century, on the basis of the previously existing small-scale production, manufactories continued to emerge and develop. Centralized manufactories functioned in metallurgy (Tula, Kashira, Ural, Pomorie), shipbuilding, salt making, rope spinning, leather and silicate production. The spread of dispersed manufacturing is evidenced by the presence of semi-finished goods on the market and the steady demand for individual species raw materials in the same area.
The presence of relatively cheap raw materials (ores, wool, flax, leather) created the prerequisites for the emergence of manufactories. In addition to metallurgical enterprises, leather, glass, stationery and other manufactories arose everywhere. During their organization it was widely used Foreign experience. The Dutchman A. Vinius, who accepted Russian citizenship, built the first water-powered ironworks in Russia. In 1632, he received a royal grant to establish factories near Tula. Here, in relative proximity to the capital, it was planned to smelt cast iron and iron, cast guns, boilers, etc. Vinius could not cope with the construction of factories with his own resources. Therefore, a few years later he organized a company, which included the capital of two other Dutch merchants.
By analogy with Vinius’s enterprise, ironworks were created somewhat later in Kashira, in the Olonets region, near Voronezh and near Moscow. These factories produced cannons and gun barrels, strip iron, boilers, frying pans, etc.
In the 17th century, the first copper smelters appeared in Russia. Copper ore was found near Salt Kama, where the treasury built the Pyskor plant. Subsequently, on the basis of Pyskor ores, the plant of the “smelters” of the Tumashev brothers operated.
Most of the work in manufactories was carried out mainly manually. However, some processes were mechanized using water engines. Therefore, manufactories were usually built on rivers blocked by dams. As before, especially labor-intensive and cheaply paid work was carried out mainly by assigned peasants or their own serfs, as was the case, for example, at the ironworks of the Tsar’s father-in-law I. D. Miloslavsky. This is how the peasants of this boyar performed excavation, were engaged in cutting and transporting firewood, etc.
To provide labor for the Tula and Kashira factories, soon after their founding, the government assigned two palace volosts.
Nevertheless, the decisive role in providing the population industrial products did not belong to manufactories, the number of which even by the end of the 17th century. not even reached three dozen.
Due to the growth of market relations in the country, small-scale commodity production has intensified. Ordinary peasant household crafts and urban crafts formed the basis of small-scale commodity production.
In Serpukhov, Tula and Tikhvin, local blacksmiths worked not to order, but for the market. Carpenters from Pomerania, organized in artels, offered their services. Yaroslavl weavers and tanners, Moscow furriers and cloth makers also focused on the market. Some commodity producers began to use hired labor, although this was expressed in small quantities.
Waste trades, especially in non-black earth areas near Moscow and to the north of it, gave peasants the opportunity to earn extra money during the agricultural off-season. The growth of proprietary and state duties forced peasants to hire construction works, in salt-making and other industries as auxiliary workers. A large number of peasants were employed in river transport, which required barge haulers to pull ships upstream, as well as loaders and ship workers.
Transport and salt production were greatly developed. This happened not only because of the increased needs for transport services and salt, but also because both transport and salt production were primarily carried out by hired labor. Among the barge haulers and ship workers there were many “walking people,” as the documents called people not associated with a specific place of residence. Free, somewhat criminalized work force predetermined the cheapness of hired labor and, as a consequence, the receipt of large profits.
The relatively slow but constant consolidation of feudal estates led in the 17th century to an increase in “untilless peasants” and “non-arable landowners”. Sometimes such land-poor or landless peasants made up entire villages and hamlets.
(petty commodity production) (Marxism) - the production of products for the market (goods) by people who own the means of production, but usually do not have the opportunity to hire workers. From a non-Marxist point of view, such people are independent producers. The term simple commodity production usually means the same thing, sometimes used in relation to economic activity peasants There is intense debate about its applicability to small producers in modern Third World cities. See Commodities and commodity production.
View value Small Products Production in other dictionaries
Production Avg.— 1. The social process of creating material wealth, covering both the productive forces of society and the production relations of people. 2. Commitment, execution.......
Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
Non-commodity Production— - planned production of means of production and consumer goods, based on taking into account the needs and production capabilities of society as a whole and individual........
Political dictionary
Public Production— - the process of creating material goods, including consumer goods necessary for the existence of society. Production is social due to division........
Political dictionary
Commodity production— - production of consumer goods for sale. directly related to the existence of commodity-money relations. leads to competition among producers of goods, to........
Political dictionary
Automated Integrated Manufacturing— See: Integrated automated production
Economic dictionary
Alternative Manufacturing— See Alternative production
Economic dictionary
Analytical-synthetic Production— See Analytical-synthetic production
Economic dictionary
Brigade Production- - production
process in which
The output of individual goods cannot be determined separately for each worker.
Economic dictionary
Production Cost Sheet — -
list (registration
document) of the total, expressed in monetary form, expenses of associations, enterprises, organizations for
production of products, provision......
Economic dictionary
Production Cost Accounting Sheet for a Small Enterprise (form No. B-3) — -
statement intended for
cost accounting for
production and capital investment costs. Contains
data on the type of product (work, service),
........
Economic dictionary
Auxiliary production- Cm.
Auxiliary production
Economic dictionary
Call Production- - judicial
procedure for restoring rights under lost bearer documents. V.p. is one of the types of special production. In accordance with the Civil Procedure Code of the RSFSR
........
Economic dictionary
Objectives of Production Cost Accounting— - target settings,
requirements for accounting
cost accounting for
production, namely: timely, complete and reliable reflection of actual costs........
Economic dictionary
Costs of Work in Progress in Construction — -
expenses
contractor at construction sites for unfinished
work performed in accordance with
agreement for
construction.
Economic dictionary
Production Costs- - expressed in monetary form
expenses for
production of industrial products.
Accounting for land plots is organized according to their economically homogeneous types (elements of land plots........
Economic dictionary
Construction Costs — -
expenses construction organizations on
production of construction products, expressed in monetary terms.
Statistics take these into account
costs by element.........
Economic dictionary
Enforcement Proceedings— - final
civil stage
process in which forced
rights confirmed
court decision. Court decisions are given.........
Economic dictionary
Classification of Production Costs — -
grouping of enterprise costs by
production and sales of products. By various signs costs are divided into basic and overhead, direct and indirect,........
Economic dictionary
Classification of Production Cost Accounting Methods — -
method grouping
cost accounting for
production according to certain characteristics: a) in relation to technological
process:
custom-made and custom-made methods;........
Economic dictionary
Cognition Production- (from Lat cognitio -
investigation, investigation but the case) - historically the third
form of legal proceedings for private claims in Roman justice. Originated in
period of the Empire........
Economic dictionary
Computerized Integrated Manufacturing— - use of flexible production systems controlled by an integrated control system
production.
Economic dictionary
Competitive Proceedings— See bankruptcy proceedings
Economic dictionary
Indirect Production- construction
production, as well as
the use of “non-production” structures and equipment to produce goods and services.
Economic dictionary
Handicraft Production- individual and
small-scale production with
using manual
labor.
Economic dictionary
Limiting the Supply of Materials to Production — -
planning system
restrictions on the issuance of materials to workshops, production sites and workplaces for the upcoming
period in accordance with established.........
Economic dictionary
Production License- issued by the owner
patent
license for
use of a patented invention in production.
Economic dictionary
Manufactory, Manufacture- - dominated in Western Europe in the XVI-XVIII centuries.
mode of production and type of enterprise characterized by
division
labor and its cooperation, but while maintaining........
Economic dictionary
Mass production- production over a long period of the same type of product, type of product, based primarily on the flow principle of production.
Economic dictionary
Material Production- production directly related to the production of material objects, things, material assets and the provision of material services (for example,......
Economic dictionary
Small Batch Production — -
production of products in small standard batches.
Economic dictionary
Question: What is the difference between craft and small-scale production?
The Russian peasant was not only a farmer. For a long time he was engaged in various crafts, which gave him a good income. “We do not live without crafts” - these words were often repeated by the peasants. The opportunity to sell their product on the market to feed their family encouraged peasants to engage in fishing. Sometimes not only families, but entire villages were involved. (Today we are familiar with pickled cucumbers from the village of Kholynya, whose residents pickle them in barrels, lower them to the bottom of the river, and in the spring they sell crispy cucumbers in the country’s markets). Peasant goods were very popular at markets and auctions. It was bought by townspeople, peasants themselves and all ordinary people. If customers no longer liked the product, the artisan quickly improved it, so the product became durable and competitive to this day.
Question: What ancient specialties are still modern today?
(Carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, shoemakers, stove makers...)
Small-scale production is a system based on the production of small batches of goods intended for sale on the market, work to order.
Exercise: Make a table based on the textbook material and map
“Specialization of Russian regions in small-scale production”
WITH comparison table
Introduction.
Jean Charles Leonard Simond de Sismondi (1773 - 1842) occupies a unique place in the history of economic thought. He is the completion of the classical school in France and at the same time the founder of a new movement known as economic romanticism. Economic romanticism is the ideology of the petty bourgeoisie. It originated in the West during the period of the most rapid development of capitalism after the industrial revolution. It was no coincidence that Sismondi was the founder of this trend. France and Switzerland, of which he was a native, were more than half represented by the peasantry and small artisans. The process of their ruin and decay in these countries was especially painful, most of went bankrupt, proletarianized. She joined the ranks of workers or begged in search of bread and work.
Sismondi did not understand the process of formation of capitalism and its results. He dreamed of delaying its development and returning to small-scale production. He saw his task as showing how the state should manage the production and distribution of wealth in the interests of the small producer. He believed that material well-being depends on the state, therefore there should be no place for free competition and free trade.
The purpose of this work is to find answers to the following questions:
1. What is Sismondi’s model of material well-being?
2. The roots of Sismondi’s erroneous judgments.
3. What is the significance of Sismondi’s theory in the development of economic thought?
BASIC PROVISIONS OF THE THEORY OF SMALL COMMODITY PRODUCTION S. SISMONDI.
The theories of value, capital and income of Simon de Sismondi occupy a unique position in the history of economic teachings. In his economic views, he determines the value of a commodity by labor. Sismondi does not have a doctrine about the dual nature of labor, however, he draws attention to the contradiction between use value and value. Solving the problem of the value of value, he emphasizes that under capitalism this value is reduced to the necessary time, which he characterizes as the time spent under average conditions.
Sismondi correctly interprets money as a necessary product of the development of commodity-money relations and believes that, being a product of labor, it has its own internal value. He sees the difference between paper and credit money. He has comments about depreciation paper money and the characterization of inflation as a result of overflowing the sphere of circulation with excess paper money. However, he does not understand the origin of money, its true essence and functions, considering money only as a means of facilitating exchange.
Sismondi defines profit more clearly than his predecessors as the income of the capitalist, which is a deduction from the product of the worker’s labor. He speaks directly about the robbery of the worker under capitalism, emphasizing the exploitative nature of profit. The labor of the worker turned into capital for the owners. However, he did not clarify the social exploitative nature of capital. It should be noted that Sismondi’s interpretation of the categories of capital is inconsistent. His prevailing understanding of capital is as “things that come to rest.” Sometimes he considers capital as a factor of production, identifying it with the means of production, and connecting the accumulation of capital with the virtues of capitalists and their frugality. Based on this characteristic of capital, Sismondi gave the following definition of profit: he reduced it either to the result of the productivity of capital itself, or to the reward for the capitalist’s thrift.
Sismondi's theory of reproduction and crisis constitutes the basis of his program of return to the past. In the chapter “The Formation of Wealth in an Isolated Man,” considering the order of satisfying needs in Robinsonade, he came to the conclusion that needs drive production. For him, the history of an isolated person is the history of all humanity, the difference is only in quantity. He stated that consumption, both in Robinson and in bourgeois society, dominates production and is determined by it, thus consumption, and not surplus value, was declared the goal of capitalist production. Society is interested in ensuring that labor is regulated by demand, that all goods are sold, and that more than one producer does not suffer. From his point of view, the opposition of interests of society and individual producers should be eliminated by the state. “The state must strive for an order that would provide both the poor and the rich with contentment, joy, peace - an order in which no one suffers. Sismondi denied the class character of the bourgeois state, suggesting that it could resist large-scale production and make possible a universal social harmony can only come with a return to small-scale production, which supposedly ensures the independence of the producer and eliminates the contradiction of capitalism.
Reducing the value of a social product to income, Sismondi states that in order to sell all produced goods it is necessary that production fully correspond to the income of society. If production exceeds the amount of society's income, then the product will not be sold. Thus, he reduces the sales process to personal consumption. From this he concludes that capitalists cannot make a profit.
According to Sismondi, with the development of capitalism, the domestic market narrows due to two circumstances. The first circumstance is that the income of workers is declining. Because they are replaced by machines that have no demand. The income of workers is also reduced for another reason: when hiring workers, capitalists can always hire more compliant workers from the mass of unemployed. Consequently, even employed workers are doomed to consume the minimum means of subsistence, which means they have less and less demand for goods. Another circumstance is the narrowing of the domestic market - a decrease in demand from capitalists. The latter strive to produce more and more. They accumulate part of their income, which they should have spent on consumption. As a result, production exceeds consumption by both workers and capitalists. Part of the social product (part of the “excess value”) remains unrealized. The foreign market could be a way out. But it is also narrowing, since those countries that were a foreign market for capitalist countries themselves take the path of capitalism and the pursuit of a foreign market. The moment is not far when there will be no foreign markets at all for the countries of developed capitalism. Consequently, capitalism cannot develop - crises of overproduction are inherent in it.
Sismondi believed that the main cause of crises was the discrepancy between production and consumption. He states quite clearly that if products are bought with income, then an excess of production over income also means an excess over consumption and should lead to crises. Speaking about these contradictions, he derives crises from insufficient consumption, denying the possibility of crises in the economy of an isolated person (Robinson did not allow production to exceed consumption).
CONCLUSIONS:
1. According to Sismondi, material well-being is possible only with small-scale production, where there is no place for free competition and free trade. Labor is regulated by demand. Consumption dominates and determines production. Production fully corresponds to the income of society. All goods are sold. The state directs production and distributes wealth in the interests of the small producer.
2. Sismondi takes the production and consumption of an isolated person - Robinson - as the starting point of his research. The idealized petty bourgeois exists only in his imagination. He does not see the goal of capitalist production - surplus value. In his understanding, the main goal of capitalism is consumption. He underestimates the progressive role of large-scale machine production, denies the class character of the bourgeois state, and naively assumes that the capitalist state will restrain large production and will achieve general prosperity in the conditions of patriarchal small-scale production. Sismondi denies that crises are a means of restoring economic balance in the development of individual economies and individual states.
3. Although Sismondi interprets the contradictions of capitalism from petty-bourgeois positions, the very formulation of the problems of the contradictions of capitalism and their social consequences was a significant step in the development of economic thought, a serious contribution to political economy. He drew attention to the existence of contradictions between production and consumption and noted the importance of problems of personal consumption. Since then, criticism of capitalism has become an important section of political economy.
1. Introduction.
2. General provisions theories of small-scale production, value and crises.
3. Conclusions.
4. Literature.
Literature:
1. The World History economic thought. T.2, chapter 4, pp.82-93.
2. Kostyuk V.N. History of Economic Thought. P. 15 -25, M. -Tsentr.-1997.
3. Zhid Sh., Rist Sh. History of economic teachings.-M.-Economics,-1995.-p.142-164.
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