What approach interprets the personality as a carrier. Different approaches to understanding personality in psychology. The main parameters of the static structure of personality

To the study of personality

In modern psychology, stable approaches to the study of personality have developed, the most famous of which are: psychodynamic, behavioral, activity, cognitive, existential and transpersonal. The last two are often combined under the term "humanistic approach".

Each of these areas contains more or less complex theoretical constructions, an experimental and experimental basis for their inherent views. Some of the approaches are very stable concepts, i.e. systems of views on the psychological nature of the personality (psychodynamic, humanistic, activity approaches). Others are scientific theories, i.e. experimentally supported hypotheses regarding scientifically comprehended truths that reflect the psychological nature of the individual (behavioral and cognitive approaches).

In addition, within the framework of these approaches, numerous related theories and methods for studying personality have been developed in development or in opposition to them. So modern personality psychology acts as an independent scientific discipline.

Psychodynamic approach to the study of personality. This approach represents the first theoretical concept of personality in psychology. Its author is Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), the great Austrian psychologist, the founder of psychoanalysis. According to Z. Freud, a person is a being controlled by the dynamics of unconscious drives (hence the term “psychodynamic”), and personality is a stable human “I”, which has the following structure: Id (“It” in Latin) - Ego (actually "I" in Latin) - SuperEgo (super-I). The id is the seat of instinctual drives and is subject to the pleasure principle. Ego is the central instance of self-regulation and is guided by the reality principle. SuperEgo is the moral instance of the personal "I", which evaluates a person's actions from the point of view of their social acceptability. According to Z. Freud, Ego protects itself from unacceptable experiences from Id or SuperEgo with the help of protective mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are psychological actions that relieve tension from the ego. There are only about two dozen of them: repression, replacement, rationalization, projection, denial, regression, compensation, sublimation, etc. Since a person has two main drives - to life (libido) and to death (mortido), it is the dynamics of these drives in the course of life and the distortion of the perception of reality under the influence of protective mechanisms constitute the true intrigue of the existence of the individual (in the psychodynamic approach). Together with Z. Freud, such scientists as Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Melanie Kline, Heinz Kogut, Karen Horney, Wilhelm Reich, Erik Erikson and others made a great contribution to the study of personality psychology within the framework of this approach.

behavioral approach. Unlike the psychodynamic approach, in which the main attention is paid to the history of personality development and its inner experiences, the behavioral approach focuses on the interpretation of personality as set of behavioral stereotypes, due to a combination of learning and responses to stimuli. The founders of the behavioral approach are American John Watson (1878 - 1958), Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov (1868 - 1936), American Barres Skinner (1904 - 1988) and others. B. Skinner distinguished himself with especially radical contributions to the psychological nature of personality. The concept of personality B. Skipner attributed to the group of far-fetched, along with the concepts will, creativity, freedom, dignity. According to B. Skinner, “ personality- this is behavioral repertoire corresponding to a certain set of circumstances. And human behavior is only a function derived from social conditions. In the behavioral approach, therefore, personality is treated not as a universal quality of a person, but as a product of circumstances. The qualities of the personality itself (honesty, self-control, sociability, etc.) are the products of the social reinforcements in specific circumstances.

Activity approach. Developed in the 1930s by Soviet scientists L.S. Vygotsky (1896 - 1938), S.L. Rubinstein (1880 - 1959) and A.N. Leontiev (1903 - 1979), the activity approach differs from the behavioral approach in the interpretation of personality in several fundamental points. First, the activity approach puts at the forefront the system of human motives, the hierarchy of which determines orientation personality. Secondly, it interprets personality as a hierarchy of activities deriving the value of the individual from the social and spiritual significance of her activities and the means she uses. Thirdly, the activity approach attached and attaches great importance to abilities as a means of forming functional organs(see 20.2) and creating, in fact, a personality in the process personalization individual i.e. highlighting it from the initially complete and undivided social dependence (baby) into a full-fledged figure. The scale of an individual's activity, its social and spiritual value for the living and future generations is the measure of personality in the activity approach. personality structure here includes: biological component personality (temperament, character, inclinations-abilities), experience component(acquired and developed knowledge, skills and abilities) and directionality component(system of motives, beliefs, value meanings).

cognitive approach. Introduced in psychology theory of personality constructs George Kelly (1905 - 1965) factor theory of personality traits Raymond Cattell (1905 - 1994) factor theory of personality types Hans Eysenck (1916 - 1997) and a number of others, the cognitive approach uses the ability of a person's logical thinking when creating (constructing) a picture of the world, as well as various procedures for measuring mental personality traits.

Thus, the American psychologist J. Kelly, in his theory of personality constructs, proceeded from the fact that personality is not some kind of fixed entity. Vice versa: what man does, how does, defines his personality. In the theory of J. Kelly, three main points are basic for understanding personality: role, construct and construction. Personality, therefore, in the theory of J. Kelly is role set(father, son, teacher, etc.), set of constructs(meaningful statements regarding the basis for classifying vital relationships) and prevailing ways creating constructs. To understand the essence of this theory, it is enough to take a few small pieces of paper (3 cm x 4 cm) and write on each of them the “role” of the most significant people for you: father, mother, friend, teacher, brother, etc. Then you should take in any combination three such leaves and each time answer one question: how are two of these people similar and how are they different from the third? Essentially, whenever you or the subject follow the logical rule of exclusion of the middle, formulating construct, i.e. basic rule in their own interpretation of the world. The number and variety of constructs is the most important criterion in the interpretation of personality.

The American R. Cattell believed that a personality is something that allows you to predict how a person will behave in a given situation, i.e. a set of rules that govern human behavior in all kinds of situations. R. Cattell singled out by mathematical measurements common, unique, basic and superficial personality traits. Then he classified them into temperamental, motivational and ability. As a result, in its structure, the personality includes the following components: 35 personality traits of the first order (23 normal and 12 pathological), 8 of the second order, 10 basic motivational urges (hunger, anger, curiosity, etc.) and two types of intelligence - mobile and crystallized (learning outcome). Generalized in the most common 16-factor scheme of personality traits (properties), this theory has received wide practical distribution thanks to the personality test of the same name by R. Cattell.

The British psychologist G. Eysenck, like R. Cattell, based on mathematical methods of analysis, identified several dozen features in the personality structure, however, unlike R. Cattell, he established their dependence on the highest levels of organization of personality behavior - personality types. He singled out three: extraversive, neurotic and psychotic. Hierarchical personality structure is a distinctive side of the theory of G. Eysenck. Psychotic personality type is characterized by such traits as: aggressiveness, self-centeredness, impulsiveness, etc. extraversive- sociability, activity, courage, carelessness, etc. Neurotic- anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, shyness, etc. According to G. Eysenck, genetic factors are decisive for the behavior of the individual.

The personality theories of R. Cattell and G. Eysenck are also called personality trait theories.

Existential - transpersonal(humanistic approach). This approach to the analysis and understanding of personality comes from the fact that every person has a need for personal development, i.e. in revealing the potential of all your abilities in striving for a certain ideal. The founder of the humanistic approach to personality is the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). One of the main concepts for characterizing a personality, according to A. Maslow, is the concept of "self-actualization", i.e. full disclosure and application of their talents. According to A. Maslow, a self-actualized personality is distinguished by the following features: acceptance of oneself and others; immediacy (naturalness), the need for solitude; independence, democracy, freshness of perception, goodwill, creativity, ability to intense (peak) experiences.

Later, the ideas of And Maslow were developed in the works of Carl Rogers, Stanislav Grof. And the actual existential view of personality problems was developed in the works of the American psychologist Rollo May (1909–1994), who, relying on the works of European philosophers, developed the concept of personality, in which the key concepts are anxiety, guilt, freedom, myth, fate, intentionality (the ability to to active action) formed the framework of the personality structure.

All of the above approaches show that a person's personality is a complex entity that includes complexes of stable and variable traits determined by both genetic and sociocultural factors, among which the leading place belongs to processes that allow a person to reproduce the human type of life. At the same time, it is possible to interpret the nature and properties of personality in different ways. But in fact, the real prospects for the formation and flourishing of a person's personality are determined by the efforts of people to create a truly just and humane human society.

The formation of personality

The formation of personality is a unity of the processes of its formation and development. Each type of concepts and theories discussed in the previous paragraph is associated with a special idea of personality development. Psychoanalytic concept understands development as an adaptation of the biological essence of a person to the norms and requirements of society, the development of a person's compensatory methods of action, reconciling him with the prohibitions and norms of society. behavioral concept proceeds from the fact that the main thing for the development of personality is the organization of such incentives that would modify a person's behavior in the direction of acquiring socially desirable stereotypes. cognitive theories(including the theory of personality traits) base their hypotheses on personality development on the fact that some personality traits are genetically determined and innate, while others are formed in vivo through a certain interpersonal interaction. At the same time, both behavioral and cognitive concepts are combined in the concept of "socialization", emphasizing the fundamental importance of social institutions in their influence on the formation and formation of the individual. Humanistic approach interprets the process of personality formation as the realization of one's own potentialities and abilities. At the same time, it is impossible not to notice that most of these concepts and theories abstract from the real processes in society, from the real place of a particular person in public life, in production relations, and property relations. They abstract from the actual defenselessness of a person in front of the monstrous power of modern industrial-bureaucratic corporations and systems. They do not consider the real dependencies of a person and the possibilities of his development, taking into account the specific social conditions in which he is. Therefore, it is most likely activity approach, which puts a person as a doer at the forefront, and the production system as the embodiment of real power and property relations, is able to objectively and impartially analyze and develop the theory and practice of full-fledged personal development. After all, it is quite clear that if the issues of a fair distribution of property relations, providing all children with the opportunity to learn according to their abilities, and not according to the financial resources of their parents, are not resolved in society, it is pointless to talk about personal development as a perspective for everyone. Only the familiarization of all members of society, from early childhood, to high human culture, genuine science and various types of socially significant activities can be the key to the full personal development of each new person who is born a helpless baby and can personalize into a comprehensively developed personality. A person who moves forward to new ideals of truth, goodness and beauty all of humanity.

A bunch of additional cheat sheets, answers to exam questions and useful information - in the section "For exams"

Firstly, personality is the subject of complex and contradictory processes in society. Secondly, the society in its policy cannot but take into account the diverse interests and needs of the individual. Thirdly, personality reflects the level of development of society achieved at this stage. AT-fourth With the rapid development of the media, the emergence of new social and psychological technologies, the danger of their use in order to manipulate the behavior of an individual increases. One of the first to understand the new role of the individual as the dominant factor in historical development was A. Peccei, the head of the Club of Rome. Seven main approaches: dialectical-materialistic, anthropological, normative, sociological, personalistic, theory of "mirror self", biological and genetic.

Dialectical-materialistic approach . According to this concept, personality development is a dialectical process determined by four factors: the biology of the individual, his social environment, upbringing and self-education skills. A person is initially a social being, his personality develops in the course of social activity, i.e. in the process of interaction with the social environment in the course of education and reflection.

Anthropological approach . With this approach, a person is considered as a carrier of universal human properties, as a generic concept denoting a representative of the human race. Personality is likened to the concept of an individual.

Abstract anthropologism identifies the concepts of personality, person and individual. He ignores the decisive role of the social environment as a factor in the formation of personality.

Regulatory Approach . In it, "personality" is associated with a set of positive qualities (features) related to the consciousness and activity of a person.

Sociological approach . Its essence lies in the assertion that every person is a person by virtue of the possession of certain socially significant features. Personality is considered, first of all, as an object and product of social relations.

In the works of the French sociologists E. Durkheim, L. Levy-Bruhl and others, the principle of social conditioning of the psyche was developed. This approach prevails in sociology. Personality is considered as a concrete expression of the essence of a person, a holistic embodiment and realization in him of a system of socially significant features and qualities of a given society.

Personalistic approach . To some extent, as a counterbalance to the anthropological and sociological approaches, there are attempts to understand and explain the personality as some kind of absolutely independent and individually unique integrity.

The personalistic interpretation of personality received the most complete expression in the concept of existentialism. According to it, the essence of personality is considered in its absolute spiritual independence and uniqueness.

Personality is a set of mental reactions of a person to the opinion of others about him. His own "I" is a perceived mirror image, the sum of the impressions that, as it seems to him, he makes on others. "I" acts as a synthesis of social and individual in a person.

Biological-genetic approach suggests that human behavior is embedded in his bioprogram. This is primitive determinism. This approach ignores the role of the social environment and culture in the development of man as a social being.

Firstly, the personality should be considered from two sides at once: as an object and a subject, and not only social, but also biological relations. Both relationships regulate the behavior of the individual.

Secondly,already in the very position of the object and product of biosocial relations, the individual is faced with the need to choose different models of social behavior.

Discrepancies, contradictions and conflicts between biologically and socially programmed systems of behavior of a person open up a relative freedom of choice of solutions.

Thirdly,personality, being the object and subject of biosocial relations, combines the features of the genus (common human) with the social type of certain social communities.

Fourth,both universal and social are refracted in a person in a specific way through his individually unique features.

In general, the following definition can be given: personality is an integral concept that characterizes a person as an object and subject of biosocial relations and combines in him the universal, socially specific and individually unique.

"Individuality" - this concept covers those specific natural and social qualities that have developed in a person on the basis of inherited biological prerequisites, his social position and upbringing.

« Individual"- this is a single representative of some whole (biological genus or social group).

Personality is the subject of social relations . She is a part of society. It specifically reflects all the phenomena of social life. The individual is never absorbed by society. Personality - the total expression of the social qualities of the individual.

AT personality structure researchers include: individual consciousness closely connected and determined by public consciousness. In relation to each person, social consciousness is objective; it acts as part of the social environment. From it the consciousness of the individual draws vital material. Value Orientations personality is the social values shared by the personality. The latter means more or less generally accepted behavioral standards.

culture of personality acts as a set of social norms and values by which the individual is guided in his activities. social activities is a way of realizing the needs and interests of the individual.

Every individual in society has his own social status and plays his social role .

Personality types. A type is understood as a generalized image, characteristic features of a certain group of people or samples of models for groups of objects, phenomena and personalities.

Social personality type - this is a way for a person to carry out various types of activities, a certain set of personality traits that expresses the individual's belonging to a social group.

The concept of a social type of personality captures the reflection of a set of recurring social qualities of individuals who are part of any social community.

In 1914 E. Spranger described six "ideal types" of personality, stipulating that they do not occur in their pure form, but are only trends. Here they are: 1) theoretical- the desire for knowledge; 2) economic- search for usefulness and the desire to realize it; 3) aesthetic- the desire for impression, experience and self-expression; four) social- the desire for communication, including love; 5) political- the will to power and the desire to obey it; 6) religious- the search for a higher meaning of life. Each of the tendencies, according to Spranger, has many degrees and forms of manifestation.

Sociology distinguishes between the "basic" type of personality and the "ideal", i.e. respectively, the personality most characteristic of the given conditions, and the personality most corresponding to the given conditions. The difference between these personality structures is significant. The ideal, in principle, will never receive its final realization, but at every given moment it receives its embodiment in the basic type of personality.

Of course, in reality, the basic and ideal personality types are divided into many types. These classifications can be based on various criteria. The most common criterion is the type of relationship between the individual and society. Or, in other words, the orientation of the individual.

E. Fromm , for example, distinguished two types of orientation: productive and unproductive. Although he recognized the impossibility of distinguishing "pure" types of personality and personal orientation, while emphasizing the naturalness and regularity of their combination, with the dominant position of one of them.

Unproductive personality is incapable of self-expression, tk. its dominant is an unproductive orientation. However, the negative impact of an unproductive orientation is smoothed out in a person with a productive orientation.

Productive a person is capable of changing his environment, of expressing himself as a result of having a productive orientation.

Riesman also identified two types of personality orientation: external and internal. An internally oriented person has a property that Risman considers positive: the ability to maintain a balance between the needs for achieving his life goals and the environment.

He also described another type of orientation, which he called " otherwise oriented type". A differently oriented person is able to respond to changes in the surrounding society.

Some domestic sociologists believe that the prevailing in the 30s. form of socialist organization of social life gave rise to personality type corresponding to the command-administrative system.

This type is characterized by such features as conformism, lack of autonomy, fear of conflicts, insufficient focus on the results of work, lack of initiative, unwillingness to take risks, distrust of the new, hostility to change, intolerance to various deviations. Currently a new type of personality is being formed in Russia.

One of the first to understand the new role of the individual as the dominant factor in historical development was A. Peccei, the head of the Club of Rome. Seven main approaches: dialectical-materialistic, anthropological, normative, sociological, personalistic, theory of "mirror self", biological and genetic.

Personality - object and subject, and not only social, but also biological relations. 2) the individual is faced with the need to choose different models of social behavior. 3) combines the features of the genus (universal) with the social type of certain social communities. 4) both universal and social are refracted in a person in a specific way through his individually unique features.

Personality - this is an integral concept that characterizes a person as an object and subject of biosocial relations and combines in him the universal, socially specific and individually unique.

individual, individuality.

Personality structure- individual consciousness, value orientations, personality culture, social activity, social status, social. role.

Modern tendencies. In developed countries, marriage, which is the basis of the family, is becoming equal and voluntary. Economic motives and pressure from "third parties" are minimal. Sociological studies conducted in our country show that about 40% of married men and about 50% of married women entered into their union for love, the rest are dominated by other motives. The family creates opportunities for the professional and spiritual growth of its members, overcomes the alienation of matrimony from marriage. However, these and some other positive trends cannot reduce the acuteness of the crisis of the modern family.

Negative trendsin the development of the modern family prevail. A characteristic feature of the family is its instability: from 30 to 50% of marriages break up. There is a tendency to weaken family ties.

Causes of the family crisismultifaceted. Wives become less economically dependent on their husbands. Increased mobility, especially migration also undermines the strength of family ties. Family functions are changing. This is influenced not only by social, economic, cultural, religious and ethnic traditions, but also by the new technical and environmental situation.

took on a massive character cohabitation of a man and a woman without marriage. There is not even a simple reproduction of the population. Reducing the number of children in the family has mixed consequences for the socialization of the child. Western researchers attribute to the positive consequences the greater opportunities for direct contact between the child and parents, thereby accelerating his intellectual development, enriching his speech, etc. The negative consequences are the lack of communication skills, which makes it difficult for young people to enter the world of adults. Developing the process of nuclearization of families leads to a weakening of ties between generations. Reduces the continuity of generations.

The transformation of the family is largely associated with ever-increasing influx of women into the labor market. Integrated mechanization and automation of production, the introduction of robots and microprocessors have reduced the scope of heavy physical labor. The economic activity of women is largely due to the lack of funds to maintain an adequate standard of living for the family. This applies not only to the poorest segments of the population, but also to many families belonging to the “middle class”.

Another reason for the increase in women's economic activity is the growth of the public consciousness of women, their desire for independence and real equality with men in all spheres of public life.

All this leads to profound changes in intra-family relations, norms of behavior. A new relationship develops between a man and a woman.

Such a transformation as a whole is certainly progressive.. However, it also creates a number of problems, as it makes the family less stable. Family breakdown hits the children the hardest. A significant proportion of working women have young children.

In modern societies, the opinion is growing stronger that it is necessary to create effective family assistance services, not only for the poor, but also for the most ordinary.

Russian family.

Modern tendenciesin the development of the family are characterized by a number of features. Let's name the positive ones first. . In developed countries, marriage, which is the basis of the family, is becoming equal and voluntary. Economic motives and pressure from "third parties" are minimal. The family creates opportunities for the professional and spiritual growth of its members, overcomes the alienation of matrimony from marriage.

Causes of the family crisis multifaceted.

Wives become less economically dependent on their husbands.

Increased mobility, especially migration.

The functions of the family are changing. This is influenced not only by social, economic, cultural, religious and ethnic traditions, but also by the new technical and environmental situation.

Cohabitation of a man and a woman without marriage.

- Reducing the number of children in the family. There is not even a simple reproduction of the population.

- the process of nuclearization of families leads to a weakening of ties between generations. Reduces the continuity of generations

- Increasing number of women in the labor market

- the growth of the public consciousness of women

In the world practice of working with familiesthere are many new things. Thus, in a number of countries, family planning is carried out, special marriage and family consultations are created to reconcile conflicting couples, the conditions of the marriage contract are changed (if before the spouses had to take care of each other, now they must love each other, and failure to comply with this condition is one of most compelling reasons for divorce).

Russian family.Although from the formal side, it seems that the family is not deprived of the attention of the state. Thus, the Committee on Family Affairs and Demographic Policy was created under the Council of Ministers of Russia. Currently, the regions have relevant departments (committees) that work closely with committees for the social protection of youth. At the municipal level, there are departments for the social protection of families and children.

Various departments are also creating their own systems of state and social assistance to the population with special tasks, functions and volumes. Psychologists, social pedagogues and social workers are being trained in the vocational education system to work with families. Special programs and legal laws are devoted to the family. But all these events are often of a ritual nature and their effectiveness is extremely low.

And the point is not only in poor executive discipline and insufficient material and financial support, but also in the weak scientific and methodological basis of this work, as well as the lack of the necessary traditions and experience, the high prestige of motherhood and fatherhood. According to experts, every second young man graduates from school sick, 70% of girls are not ready for the birth of children in the future due to health reasons.

The social role of the individual- it is a set of social functions performed by it, determined by the position of a person and implemented in the process of his life.

The activity of the individual takes place in various spheres of life: material (economic), social, political, spiritual. In each of these spheres, a person occupies a certain position and place. That is, in each area it plays a specific role. In real life, one person most often performs several social roles.

The role theory of personality was actively developed by American sociologists Parsons, Mead and others.

Attempts to characterize personality within the framework of role theory are also popular in the works of Russian authors. So, I.S.Kon characterizes a person mainly through the main roles performed by her. Other authors define personality as“a unit in the system of social relations” (V.E. Davidovich) or as a measure of the assimilation of social relations (P.E. Kryazhev).

Social role is directly related to social status.

The social status of the individual- the general position of the individual in society, associated with a certain set of rights and obligations. social status- it is an integral indicator of the social status of an individual, a social group, covering the profession, qualifications, position, nature of the work performed, financial situation, political affiliation, business ties, age, marital status, etc.

The American sociologist R. Marton called all this a “status set”.

Social status is subdividedto the prescribed (assigned), i.e. obtained regardless of the subject, most often from birth (race, gender, age, nationality, etc.) and achieved (achieved), i.e. acquired by the individual's own efforts. An individual may also have a mixed social status, combining the features of the two indicated. Usually a person has several social statuses, but one of them is the main one (for example, a position at the main place of work).

Main activitiescoincide with the main areas of public life - labor, social, political, spiritual, family and household, etc.. Activity can be individual, group, organized or spontaneous. You can even single out criminal activity. However, if we consider the motives, content, goals and direction of activity, then it can be assessed as social and asocial. The latter is often characterized as antisocial behavior. The criterion of social activity is performance results, i.e. those changes in the existing situation that are achieved through the expenditure of energy, correlated with the public interest.

There are internal and external sources of social activity. Internal include material and spiritual needs, interests, consciousness, level of culture. External - those conditions in which people live and act

structural approach

AT philosophical science K. Marx and F. Engels. Their concept is based on the position that the self-knowledge of the individual is always something secondary in relation to his activity, therefore, it cannot be personality-forming. Personality "becomes" is developed in the dialectical process of interpersonal communication, in the dialectical clash of heterogeneous social expressions of the activity of individuals.

The next condition is the place that the "I" occupies in social life. It determines the possibility of action, self-affirmation and evaluation through the approval of actions by the immediate and more distant environment and, consequently, through the attitude of other individuals and social groups to the activity being performed. "According to Marx, the main aspirations of the individual is the desire for "self-fulfillment", for the free choice of one's vocation and the desire for "self-actualization" in collective life, in work for the benefit of society.

Once formed in a dialectical collision, the structure of the personality of individuals becomes a dynamic element, an integral part of both interpersonal relations and personal life. That. a person's personality is a projection of his decisions and choices - not as a stream of successive and independent mental acts, but as a certain structure, always remaining in heterogeneous relations with the environment, constantly enriching itself.

In this theory of personality, relationships are the most important condition for its development.Those. the structure of personality is represented by relationships with society, with nature, and even with oneself. The dominant element is the activity relations of the individual.

For example, the concept of personality development developed by Z. Freud is based on the belief that the individual is always in a state of conflict with society. According to Z. Freud, biological urges are contrary to the norms of culture, and socialization is the process of curbing these urges. According to Z. Freud, a personality consists of elements that oppose the requirements of society, and of elements that meet these requirements. Dominant here there is not some specific element of the personality structure, but the interaction between them.

Z. Freud is the first researcher who tried to build a clear personality structure. As an element that opposes the requirements of society, is ID , i.e., the Unconscious. This element is the seat of the sexual and aggressive needs of the individual. As an element that meets the requirements of society, is Superego - superme. This is a system of requirements imposed on the individual by society. The third element is ego - "I", Conscious. "I" is designed to regulate the relationship between Id and Superego , to promote the process of adaptation of the individual in society.

mida, considering, or, at least, being sufficiently dependent on them. According to Mead, the process of personality formation includes three different stages, i.e. successive formation of its individual elements. The first is imitation.. At this stage, children copy the behavior of adults without understanding it. Then follows the play stage, when children understand behavior as the performance of certain roles; in the course of the game they reproduce these roles. The transition from one role to another develops in children the ability to give their actions the meaning that other members of society give them - this is the next important step in the process of creating their own "I". The third stage, according to Mead, stage of collective games. When children learn to be aware of the expectations of not only one person, but the entire group. At this stage, a sense of social identity is acquired.

how we think others perceive us (I'm sure people notice my new hairstyle)

how we think they react to what they see (I'm sure they like my new hairstyle)

how we respond to the perceived reaction of others (apparently, I will always do my hair this way).

Because in this theory

role theorydevelopment assumes that the personality of a person “is nothing more than a system of social roles performed by a person in response to the requirements and expectations of various social groups to which he belongs and in which he developed. The interactionist concept of social roles comes from behavioral premises. The requirements and expectations of a social group are a certain system of incentives, and a social role is a system of reactions to these incentives. With this understanding, the system of personality traits is presented as a mirror projection of the system of requirements and expectations of the social group. In reality, the dependence of a person's actions on relationships in a social group is much more complex and indirect.

There are many definitions and understandings of the social role, but they are all related to interpersonal communication, or relationships that have developed in society.

In sociology, "social role" is most often understood as an impersonal norm or function associated with a particular social position and independent of the personal characteristics of the individuals occupying this position. "Role" is not a person, but rather the image behind which she hides.

Leontiev defined a “role” as a program “that corresponds to the expected behavior of a person occupying a certain place in the structure of a particular social group”, as “a structured way of his participation in the life of society”. A "role" can in no way be a "representation" of a person, otherwise one would have to admit that a person exists not only outside of society, but even outside of his own social activity. After all, "a structured way of participating in the life of society" is nothing but the structure of the activity of the individual.

In the study of intrapersonal processesthe word "role" denotes a certain aspect, part, side of a person's activity. Attention here is focused on how the individual himself perceives, realizes and evaluates this or that function, activity, belonging, what place it has in his “image of the Self”, what personal meaning it puts into it. To the individual himself, only such an activity seems to be “role-playing”, which he perceives as something more or less external, peripheral or conditional, “played out” for others, in contrast to the “true I”, without which he cannot imagine himself. But regardless of whether the individual considers his work a craft, a vocation, or even a mission, which is very important for himself and for his moral and psychological assessment of him as a person, sociologically he in all cases plays a certain professional role.

Any classification of social roles presupposesthe point of view of either a society (group) or an individual, and it is taken into account as the degree of cruelty, structuring of the relevant relations (“positional-status” or “situational”, “structural” or “socio-normative”, “conventional” or “interpersonal” roles), so and the level of individual effort required to obtain them (the "prescribed", "attributable", or "achievable" roles).

However, the social role itself does not yet determine the behavior of the individual. To do this, it must be internalized by him. Internalized Role- this is an internal definition by the individual of his social position and his attitude to this position and the circumstances arising from it.

The perception and assessment by the individual of her social roles is to a large extent determined by her typical system of value orientations. Like a role structure, they are both social and individual. They are social because they are connected and conditioned by the position of the person, as well as by the system of public perception, etc. The totality of typical value orientations inherent in a person in a given society is called social character. At the same time, value orientations are individual, since they accumulate the unique life experience of a given person, the uniqueness of his interests and needs.

The very multiplicity of social roles inherent in a person makes everyone more or less autonomous from each of the roles separately.And although social roles and identities are a necessary component and starting point of self-categorization, neither the existential nor the reflective self is reducible to them.

Firstly, different social identities and roles (say, professional and family) do not coincide and often contradict each other. Secondly, each "social role" is a relationship that its participants can and do define in different ways. Thirdly, the individual's attitude to the roles performed is selective: some functions and activities are perceived as organic, central, inseparable from one's own "I", others - as more or less external, peripheral, "artificial". But the self-respect of an individual depends not only on the social prestige of his roles, but also on how he evaluates his success, efficiency in the implementation of the main, personally significant roles.

That. The role approach to the formation and development of a personality considers not only the structure of the personality itself, as a set of learned social roles, but also the structure of the relationship of these roles in each personality, and the structure of role relationships between different people.

Therefore, the role approach is a structural approach of sociology, although it is based in part on the psychological concepts of personality.

Essential Approach

This approach is less popular than the structural one. Perhaps the reason is that the essence, due to its uniqueness for each person, is much more difficult to identify. The structure can be viewed from different points of view, and in accordance with this, various elements can be identified.

Psychophysical approach

“Awareness of one’s gender is based, on the one hand, on somatic signs (body image), and on the other hand, on behavioral and characterological properties, assessed by the degree of their compliance or non-compliance with normative stereotypes of masculinity (masculinity) and femininity (femininity). Like all other children's self-assessments, they are derived from the assessment of the child by others, they are multidimensional and often ambiguous. Even preschoolers often face the problem of the correlation between assessing the degree of their masculinity or femininity and gender-role preferences.

Identification theoryThe theory of sexual typing Self-categorization theory based on the cognitive-genetic concept of the American psychologist L. Kohlberg, emphasizes the leading role of self-awareness: the child first learns gender identity, recognizes himself as a boy or a girl, and then coordinates his behavior with what he thinks corresponds to the accepted definition. In the light of the theory of sexual typing, the logic of the motivation of the child's behavior is something like this: “I want encouragement. I am rewarded when I do what is supposed to be a boy, so I want to be a boy,” and in light of the theory of self-categorization: “I am a boy, so I want to do what is supposed to be a boy, and the opportunity to do this rewards me.”

This approach is used more by psychological science. It is rational to use it in relation to the initial stages of personality formation.

Thus, it is clear that personality can be considered from different positions and with the help of different approaches. But there is one general statement that is dominant in all approaches: a person does not exist outside of relationships between people. And therefore the process of socialization of the individual is possible only through social relations.

The most popular is structural approach . It lies in the fact that the personality is considered from the point of view of its components; in identifying ways of interaction between the components of the personality; in identifying the dominant element of personality.

AT philosophical science a structural approach to the study of personality is used primarily in the works K. Marx and F. Engels. Their concept is based on the position that the self-knowledge of the individual is always something secondary in relation to his activity, therefore, it cannot be personality-forming. In this theory of personality, relationships are the most important condition for its development. Those. the structure of personality is represented by relationships with society, with nature, and even with oneself. The dominant element is the activity relations of the individual.

The structural approach is used in many psychological theories of personality. For example, the concept of personality development developed by Z. Freud is based on the belief that the individual is always in a state of conflict with society. Dominant here there is not some specific element of the personality structure, but the interaction between them.

The structural approach is also used in the theory mida considering personality as a product of social relations, or at least being sufficiently dependent on them.

The structure of personality is presented in the form of three elements and in the theory of Charles Harton Cooley. He believed that personality is formed on the basis of many interactions of people with the outside world. In the process of these interactions, people create their "mirror self". Because in this theory personality acts as a random product, formed in interaction with other people, we can say that it is rather a socio-psychological understanding of personality. Therefore, this theory can serve as one of the foundations of the role theory of personality.

role theorydevelopment assumes that the personality of a person “is nothing more than a system of social roles performed by a person in response to the requirements and expectations of various social groups to which he belongs and in which he developed. However, the social role itself does not yet determine the behavior of the individual. To do this, it must be internalized by him. Internalized Role- this is an internal definition by the individual of his social position and his attitude to this position and the circumstances arising from it.

That. role approach The formation and development of the personality considers not only the structure of the personality itself, as a set of learned social roles, but also the structure of the relationship of these roles in each personality, and the structure of role relationships between different people.

Essential Approach involves identifying the essence of personality and explaining the process of socialization. The process of formation and development of personality in terms of the manifestation of essence in relationships.

Psychophysical approach . There are theories that consider gender differences as a decisive factor in socialization, formation and development of the individual. using a psychophysical approach. According to this approach, what attitudes will be learned by a person depends on his gender and the assessment of others and self-assessment of his behavior according to his gender.

Identification theoryemphasizes the role of emotions and imitation, believing that the child unconsciously imitates the behavior of representatives of his own sex, first of all, the parents, whose place he wants to take. The theory of sexual typing, based on the concept of social learning, emphasizes the reinforcement mechanisms when parents and other people reward boys for behavior that is considered to be boyish and condemn them when they behave in a feminine way, while girls receive positive reinforcement for feminine behavior and negative - for muscular. Self-categorization theory based on the cognitive-genetic concept of the American psychologist L. Kohlberg, emphasizes the leading role of self-awareness: the child first learns gender identity, recognizes himself as a boy or a girl, and then coordinates his behavior with what he thinks corresponds to the accepted definition.

A familyis an association of people based on marriage or consanguinity, connected by common life and mutual responsibility. The family is a social institution that performs the functions of a small group, realizing the need of society for the biological reproduction of its members and their socialization. As a small primary group, the family and family relations are distinguished by deep intimacy, trust, and emotional attachment.

Family viewed as a social institution as a social group

The basis of the family is the marriage of a man and a woman. It is sanctioned by society . Marriage is a historically changing form of relationship between a man and a woman. Through it, society regulates and sanctions sexual life, establishes marital and parental rights and obligations. The growth of the population, the physical and spiritual condition of new generations largely depend on the nature of marital relations. Depending on the form of marriage, types of family organization are distinguished: monogamy and polygamy.

The family is a more complex system of relationships than marriage. It, as a rule, unites not only spouses, but also their children, as well as other relatives or just those close to spouses and the people they need.

Its strength is provided by internal and external forces. External are: law, religion, public opinion. Internal - mutual emotionality and economic interest.

Family functions: reproductive (reproduction functions);

sexual (it began to be distinguished relatively recently);

economic and economic;

educational;

recreational (mutual assistance, health maintenance, organization

leisure and recreation);

communicative and regulatory, including social control and the implementation of the power and authority of the family.

The family has its structure. It is usually understood as a system of relations between its members. There are such types of relations: kinship, spiritual and moral, relations of power, authority, legal relations.

Depending on the kinship structures identify different types of families . Family nuclear- the type inherent in modern industrial society. This is a type of family organization, the hallmark of which is its small number: husband, wife, one or two children. The latter are not married.

The family is complexcharacterized by the presence of a large number of children and relatives. This type of family also performs economic functions. . There are families full and incomplete. Exist repeated families based on remarriage. By the nature of leisure activities, families are open, i.e. focused on a wide range of communication outside the family; closed when they are focused on domestic leisure.

In Western sociology, the following families are additionally distinguished: monogamous- marriage of one man with one woman; polygamous- marriage of one spouse with several - there are two types: polygyny- marriage between one man and several women, polyandry A marriage between one woman and several men. fraternal polyandry- the marriage of several brothers with one wife. Sororal polyandry- the marriage of several sisters with one husband. Exogamy- the choice of partners is carried out outside certain groups. Endogamy marriages are predominantly within certain groups. Patrimenial and matrimenial families where the heritage of the surname, property, social status is carried on by the father or mother. Homogeneous families- spouses from approximately the same social stratum. heterogeneous families- Spouses come from different social groups, castes, classes. homogamous families are homogeneous in terms of nationality, age, education, etc. Heterogamous families– there are differences in socio-demographic indicators. Patrilocal- the newlyweds live in the husband's family. matrilocal- the newlyweds live in the wife's family. Neolocal- the newlyweds live separately from their parents.

A family

Marriage is a historically changing form of relationship between a man and a woman. Through it, society regulates and sanctions sexual life, establishes marital and parental rights and obligations. Monogamy, polygamy.

The family unites not only spouses, but also their children, as well as other relatives or just those close to the spouses and the people they need.

Family Functions : reproductive (functions of reproduction); sexual (it began to be distinguished relatively recently); economic; educational; recreational (mutual assistance, health maintenance, organization of leisure and recreation);

communicative and regulatory, including social control and the exercise of the power and authority of the family.

Family structure - system of relations between its members.Types of relationships: kinship, spiritual and moral, relations of power, authority, legal relations.

According to the structure of family ties: nuclear - complex,

Complete - incomplete; repeated

Leisure activities:open and closed

polygyny - marriage between one man and several women, polyandry - marriage between one woman and several men. Fraternal polyandry- the marriage of several brothers with one wife. Sororal polyandry- the marriage of several sisters with one husband. Exogamy - the choice of partners is carried out outside of certain groups. Endogamy - marriages are concluded mainly within certain groups. Patrimenialandmatrimenial families where the heritage of the surname, property, social status is carried on by the father or mother. Homogeneous families- spouses from approximately the same social stratum. heterogeneous families- Spouses come from different social groups, castes, classes. Homogamous families - homogeneous in nationality, age, education, etc. Heterogamous families– there are differences in socio-demographic indicators. Patrilocal, matrilocal, neolocal.

A familyis based on marriage or consanguinityan association of people connected by common life and mutual responsibility. The family is a social institution that performs the functions of a small group, realizing the need of society for the biological reproduction of its members and their socialization. As a small primary group, the family and family relations are distinguished by deep intimacy, trust, and emotional attachment.

Family viewed as a social institution in cases where it is especially important to find out to what extent the image of the family, its functioning correspond or do not correspond to certain modern social needs. The model of the family as a social institution is extremely important for predicting future changes. Family analysis as a social group has its own specifics. The study of the family in this case focuses on the study of the conditions of its formation, the stages of development. The process of family formation in this case is considered as a set of norms and standards of residence, choice of a marriage partner, sexual behavior, relationships with parents of future spouses and sanctions for failure to comply with certain norms, reasons and motives for divorce, etc.

Organization management- this is a special body, the main activity of which is the performance of a certain set of functions aimed at providing participants in organizations with goals, coordinating their efforts. This is the body that ensures the consistency of all elements of the organization, keeps within acceptable limits the deviations of individual parts and the organization as a whole from the goals set.

Control functions:

· Leadership and leadership activities

· Member integration, mutual support

· Resource allocation

· Perception, filtering and distribution of information

· Negotiation

· Violation prevention

· Carrying out innovation

· Planning

· Control and direction of actions of subordinates

Three Control Components

1. targeted control action

2. social self-organization, i.e. spontaneous processes of internal regulation

3. organizational order - past management experience

Management methods

- direct (orders, tasks)

- through motives and needs

- through the value system

- through the social environment.

From the point of view of functionalism, the family is considered in terms of its functions or social needs that it satisfies. Proponents of functionalism emphasize the changing functions of the family in the last two centuries; most of them argue that during this period the Western family lost its inherent functions. The family is a "social force" along with economic, social class, etc.

Economic functions.Rural area - economy, i.e. economic unit; city is a waste of money. Status transfer. In society - various customs and laws, more or less automatically fixing the status occupied by families from different strata of society. Socialization. Social welfare. Caring for the Elderly and Sick Family Members

Theory of conflicts.Suitable for explaining the family structure at various levels. Some researchers emphasize the analysis of the order of distribution of power within the family, attaching particular importance to the decision-making mechanism. Another point of view more focused on conflict, the family is seen as a microcosm of conflict in the "big" society. Modern version suggests that a true understanding of the essence of the family is not associated with an analysis of the emotional or kinship relationships between its members. Family is a place of struggle. The interests of each family member come into conflict with the interests of other members and society as a whole. According to Hartmann, the author of this theory, women's heavier domestic duties are a form of exploitation that has developed within the capitalist-patriarchal system.

In real these two approaches are intertwined. And the task of sociologists is to determine the relative importance of many factors and develop theories that explain their influence on families and individuals.

What is the future of the family?This is not an easy question. There is no single answer to it. On this account, there two diametrically opposed points of view. The essence of the first is that under the influence of various aspects of development - a drop in the number of registered marriages, a decrease in the marriage rate, an increase in divorces - the family loses its former role in society.

There are also opposite point of view, according to which the family not only does not disappear, but is also strengthened, as it serves as almost the only refuge that saves a person from social troubles.

The reality is that society cannot be indifferent to the development of the family, its well-being. Otherwise, it is itself doomed to destruction.

There are different views on the problem of power. According to Weber, power is the ability for someone to exercise his will, in pursuit of the goals of action within the framework of social relations, regardless of the resistance. Means:

1. power is exercised by individuals and therefore involves choice, action and intention.

2. The idea of power is connected with the idea of activity, i.e. about the achievement of desired goals by the individual.

3. Power is exercised over other individuals and may be associated with resistance and conflict.

4. Power implies a difference in interests between those who have it and those who do not.

5. Power is negative, it leads to deprivation and restriction of the activities of subordinates.

However, non-decision making can also be a manifestation of power.

AT Marxist sociology power is seen as a structural relationship that exists independently of the will of individuals. The existence of power is seen as a consequence of the class structure of society. Power is the ability of one class to realize its interests as opposed to other classes. Those. power:

1. cannot be separated from economic and class relations.

2. Involves class struggle, not just conflicts between individuals

3. Analysis of power is impossible without consideration of the mode of production

In American sociologypower is defined as the positive social ability to achieve community goals. Power is rather something widely dispersed throughout society, rather than concentrated within the ruling elite. This is a pluralistic approach.

Authority- this is the subtype of power in which people readily obey orders, because they consider the exercise of power to be legitimate. Weber identifies three types of authority - legal-rational, traditional and charismatic. In modern sociology, the concept of authority is often used to denote the influence enjoyed by the leadership, which does not correspond to the original meaning of the term.

Leadership - influence or possession of power in social collectives. Modern management is leadership based on technical or professional competence. The three types of leadership correspond to the three types of authority.

Leadership stylemay be authoritarian or democratic.

The concept of "youth" is usually defined in three dimensions: biological, psychological and sociological.Researchers most often proceed from various combinations of these dimensions, highlighting one of them. For example, the Polish sociologist I. Halasinski, ignores biological and psychological factors, when defining youth, he believes that “youth is not a natural physiological and hormonal state, but an element of culture, social “institutionalization”. Youth, like wisdom, sex and beauty, is a social value, which is formed in various ways, depending on the structure and culture of society.

Some scientists, on the contrary, exaggerate biological and psychological factors in defining youth. Thus, the German sociologist F. Tenbruck writes that youth is “a certain age, characterized by biological and psychological relationships, and as a result, by all the characteristics of the age class.” The specificity of youth is determined two main features: transitional age and a special social condition.

The age limits of youth are delineated, on the one hand, by the end of childhood, and on the other, by the onset of social maturity.

There are different points of view on age limits youth age. For example, Pythagoras suggests referring to youth people aged 20 to 40 years, Russian demographer A. Roslavsky - from 15 to 30 years old, and American demographer Bowes - from 9 to 17 years old. It is widely believed that young people are those who are between 16 and 24 years old. In Luxembourg and France, the upper age limits for young people are 31 and 25 years old. In most other industrialized countries in Europe, it is 18 years.

In recent decades, there has been a process of lengthening the terms of youth. This phenomenon is associated with the expansion of the degree of freedom, independence of young people and the lengthening of the terms of their education.

It is determined not only by age, but also by its social condition. It is characterized by an active dominant. In the period of youth, there is a process of active formation of the social maturity of the individual. The younger generation enters the socio-economic, socio-political and cultural life of the subject of social relations through socialization. Recall that socialization is the process of assimilation of social roles, as a result of which a person turns into a member of his contemporary society. He is socially mature.

Social maturity is determined by several criteria: completion of education, acquisition of a profession, start of employment, economic independence, political and civil maturity, responsibility for one's actions, marriage, the birth of the first child.

Youth is an integral social group. However, it is internally complex and differentiated. Differentiation criteria are not reducible only to age.

Let's single out youth groups by origin(from workers, employees, intelligentsia, etc.), at the place of residence(urban, rural), by social status(young workers, young entrepreneurs, young scientists, etc.), by type of main occupation(school youth, student, etc.), by subculture. In the latter case, the differentiation criterion is the differences and characteristics of certain groups of young people in terms of lifestyle and lifestyle, the nature of values, orientations and attitudes.

Within each youth group, a number of subgroups can also be identified.

Among its integrating features, one can distinguish a commonality of socio-psychological qualities. To socio-psychological characteristics youth include the following:

unselfishness and responsiveness.Selflessness and responsiveness are characteristic of a young soul, not yet burdened with an overly rational approach to the world around;

special emotional susceptibility. Its origins are in the natural ability of a person to perceive and feel the world around him, to respond to it emotionally;

craving for innovation . Young people grasp new ideas more sharply and more willingly and are the best conductor of them. She is not inclined to compromise.

striving for the ideal. Idealize, the desire to live in perfect and harmonious relationships- this is also more characteristic of a young age;

striving for maximum power. It is associated with a general increased energy activity of a young person, when doing something at half strength seems unnatural.

Youth - the most important period of personality formation, which has a significant impact on the entire subsequent life path of a person. In the years of youth, a person is distinguished by the ability to assimilate a huge flow of information. He assimilatesthe most important social skills.

high social dynamism. This is due to the peculiarities of the formation of personality. Youth is one of the most economically vulnerable segments of the population.

The concept of "youth" is usually defined in three dimensions: biological, psychological and sociological. There are different points of view on age limits youth age. For example, Pythagoras suggests referring to youth people aged 20 to 40 years, Russian demographer A. Roslavsky - from 15 to 30 years old, and American demographer Bowes - from 9 to 17 years old. It is widely believed that young people are those who are between 16 and 24 years old. In Luxembourg and France, the upper age limits for young people are 31 and 25 years old. In most other industrialized countries in Europe, it is 18 years.

The specifics of youth as a social groupdetermined not only by age, but also by its social status. It is characterized by an active dominant. In the period of youth, there is a process of active formation of the social maturity of the individual.

Let's single out youth groups for origin (from workers, employees, intellectuals, etc.), at the place of residence(urban, rural), by social status(young workers, young entrepreneurs, young scientists, etc.), by type of main occupation(school youth, student, etc.), by subculture. In the latter case, the differentiation criterion is the differences and characteristics of certain groups of young people in terms of lifestyle and lifestyle, the nature of values, orientations and attitudes.

To socio-psychological characteristics of youth can include the following:

unselfishness and responsiveness. Special emotional susceptibility. Passion for innovation. Striving for the ideal. Striving for the maximum use of forces.

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that youth is a complex social entity. It is difficult to give a universal definition. In the most general terms, youth is a generation of people passing through the stage of socialization, assimilating educational, professional and civic functions and being prepared by society to fulfill the social roles of an adult.

In the new economic, social, spiritual and moral situation in Russia, dynamic and profound changes in the social characteristics of young people are taking place. Today the processes of differentiation prevail in the youth environment. Moreover, differentiating factors are manifested more clearly than integrating ones. First of all, a new theoretical basis is needed, a new paradigm in the study of social youth problems. Young people are increasingly relegated to the periphery of social life. There was a frank exploitation of the best qualities of youth -enthusiasm, initiative, vigor, idealism.

In the public mind, the understanding of youth as a time of preparation for life is still widespread, i.e., voluntarily or involuntarily it is ignored that youth is life. This creates a breeding ground for the formation, distribution and rooting in consciousnessyouth of infantilistic, dependent moods.

There are currently a large number youth social problems. We will combine the most acute and relevant of them into several groups.

Socialization and formation of a socially mature personality of a young person . The complexity of solving this problem lies in the fact that now continuity between generations is partially or completely interrupted, nihilistic assessments of the life path of the older generation, its experience, and historical past are intensifying. This leads to an aggravation of contradictions between generations, to deviant (deviating) behavior.

Problems of labour, employment and vocational training . The disclosure and self-realization of the personality, social status, i.e., depend on the successful solution of these problems. place and position in society, satisfaction of material and spiritual needs.

Family and marriage problems . Many causes of negative phenomena in the youth environment are due to the complexities of family life, especially the inattention of society to young families. The introduction of market relations, the strengthening of the role of economic levers leads not only to positive phenomena, but also to an increase in unemployment among young people, a reduction in contacts within the family, and an increase in tension in them (due to the intensification of labor, lengthening of the working day, etc.).

Problems of spiritual, intellectual development . The most dangerous thing, according to some well-known sociologists, in the current state of Russian society is not the economic and social crises and not even conflicts, but the growing feeling of spiritual emptiness, meaninglessness, hopelessness, the temporality of everything that happens, which covers more and more layers of Russians.

For the purposeful and effective implementation of state policy, it is important to highlight in it main priorities.

Among them are the following:

observance of the rights and freedoms of young people;

ensuring guarantees in the field of labor and employment of the younger generation;

support for a young family;

guaranteed provision of social services, creation of favorable conditions for the development of talented youth;

support for the activities of youth associations.

The main thing in youth policy- equalize the opportunities for a social start for various categories of young people, create conditions for their development.

The Australian Aborigines or the African Bushmen, who live according to primitive laws, do not have cultural institutions. But they have something that unites them with the most civilized peoples of the world - system of beliefs and values.

Among domestic scientists, widely exploring the problems of culture, there is also no unity in understanding the content side of culture. Some of them understand the culture of society as an integrative phenomenon that qualitatively characterizes all spheres of society, all types of social life of people and the products of the latter through the measure of embodiment in them in specific historical forms of the essential forces of man. Others consider culture more broadly, as the whole world as a whole, existing in direct unity with man.

Culture is also considered as a qualitative state of society at each stage of its development, more specifically and more fully expressed in the achieved level of development of productive forces, production relations, material and spiritual production, science, art, education, upbringing, etc.

Culture and Society. Culture and nature.

Transmission of cultural values and norms from generation to generation there is cultural reproduction. spiritual production- a special form of spiritual activity, separated into a separate sphere, a "branch" of production.

The influence of the culture of a society on a person is carried out not directly and directly, but through the cultural environment in which the person is included.

Under cultural environment is understood as a set of material and personal factors that directly surround a person and actively influence his activity in the consumption and creation of cultural values

culture - this is a manifestation of the activity-practical unity of man, society and nature. Accordingly, the level of its development is determined by the degree of unity of society and nature.

To the main cultural functions can include the following:

1. Cognitive. This function is manifested in the fact that culture acts as a way, a method of value development of reality. The assimilation of reality is embodied in the practical activities of people (in production, everyday life, political, scientific, educational activities). From this logically follows another function of culture - practically transformative.

2. Practical-transformative. It is designed to organize, determine the content and direction of people's practical activities.

3. Regulatory, normative. Culture, through social norms, values, traditions, knowledge, creates stable social conditions for people's lives, streamlines the experience and regulates the behavior of people in society and a particular social group. Therefore, most researchers do not attribute random, sporadic to culture.

4. Communicative. Its basis is language, communication. They help individuals, groups, societies to understand each other. The problems of understanding have been deeply developed in the socio-economic works of representatives of hermeneutics (from the Greek - interpretation, explanation). In sociology, these views were developed and concretized in "understanding sociology".

5. Culture performs the function of human socialization. It is the most important means of its formation as a member of society, a subject of activity, social relations. Culture brings up responsibility for internal, moral limitation. At the same time, in the process of socialization, individuality, the uniqueness of the individual, is formed.

6. hedonistic. Culture acts as a means of entertainment, aesthetic and moral satisfaction.

Starting from the XVIII century. In relation to culture, two lines can be distinguished: first- a positive outlook on culture, second- anti-cultural.

Enlightenment concepts of culture. These concepts arose and were actively developed by European thinkers (A. Voltaire, J. Vico, Sh. L. Montesquieu, J. V. Goethe, J. G. Herder, F. Schiller) in line with the Enlightenment. In culture, they saw the inner spiritual wealth of a person, based on his constant striving for truth, goodness, beauty.

An evolutionist approach to culture . In the second half of the XIX century. evolutionism has become widespread in explaining the nature of culture and other social phenomena. It found its justification in the works of sociologists O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, ethnographers E. Tylor and L. Morgan and other prominent scientists of that period.

Key Ideas classical evolutionism boil down to the following:

1. Both natural and public phenomena are subject permanent, regular or partial changes.

2. In the course of these changes, society moves away from its original primitive or simplified state and acquires a more complex and differentiated character. In terms of content, evolution means the growth of a rational principle in society. In accordance with this, chaos, conflict, prejudices and blind faith are eliminated.

3. Stages of evolution can be built on a scale from "savagery" and "barbarism" to the highest level of civilization. This highest step is invariably embodied in the newest West.

4. In the course of evolution, all aspects of society are constantly being improved, including art, morality, beliefs and cults. Any changes in morality, literature, art, according to the logic of evolutionism, lead to the better, they mean development as a complication, enrichment in content, form, etc.

5. Certain elements of the early state may, for the time being, be preserved as vestiges.

6. Sources of evolution are various impersonal forces, which in themselves do not change and act constantly.

7. The main direction of the evolution of society and its culture in the early stages is adaptation to external conditions, and later - mastery of these conditions and their subordination, the transition to a higher level of existence.

Diffusionism. At the beginning of the XX century. in opposition to evolutionism, a number of sociologists and ethnologists have developed the concept of diffusionism.

This approach made it possible to study the process of the spread of culture from one center to another, the interaction of cultures, and to reveal the mechanism for mastering the achievements of other peoples.

Marxism about culture. Under culture in the broad sense of the word, Marxism understood the totality of material and spiritual values, without which a person cannot live and develop as a social subject. Culture is everything that has been created and is being created as a result of his mental work and that constitutes, as it were, a “second nature”, which differs from naturally occurring natural processes and phenomena, characterized by the fact that people change, educate themselves.

Structural-functionalapproach considered culture as a subsystem of an integral socio-cultural structure.

In it, each element performs, as it were, a service role in the overall system of regulation.

Basic postulates of functionalism:

1. There is a general functional unity of society. It is expressed in the interconnection of social and cultural structures.

2. Culture is an integrated whole, in which each element meets a specific need of the whole whole, performing a specific part of the work.

3. The differentiation of functions is supported by the differentiation of structures that form an ordered system.

4. It is the constant maintenance of all elements of culture (production skills, rituals, norms, etc.) that ensures the unity of society.

Left-wing and avant-garde concepts. These concepts are widespread in today's social thought. Their main content is a sharp criticism of modern Western society, its established social structure and culture, and a denial of institutional science.

They put in the center the problem of alienation of man from society, nature and himself.

The presence of many concepts of culture is a confirmation of the fact that culture, being a holistic social phenomenon, is formed from an infinite variety of its constituent elements and relationships. In this regard, it seems correct to assume that it is impossible to create a certain universal concept of culture.

Under social norms most often they understand the totality of requirements and expectations that a social community (group), organization, class and society imposes on its members in order to carry out activities (behavior) of the established pattern.

The social norm is one of the complex forms of expression of social relations. It consists of many elements, each of which has different properties that can also change within a fairly wide range. The social norm embodies the public will, a conscious social necessity. This is what distinguishes it from the so-called quasi-norms. . The latter are most often of a rough, violent nature, fetter initiative, creativity.

The social norm performs the following functions: socializes the individual; motivates and evaluates behavior; unifies activities; socially orients; reconcile interests and means of control.

main public purposesocial norm can be formulated as regulation of social relations and behavior of people. Regulation of relations through social norms ensures voluntary and conscious cooperation of people.

We can conditionally distinguish the following groups of norms:: maintaining order, economic norms , Political norms, Cultural norms, legal norms . There are formal and informal norms. An intermediate position is occupied by the norms of morality, ethics and fashion. Norms can be classified by the scale of action, by significance, by the nature of the requirement and the objective function.

In outline the process of formation and functioning of social norms can be conditionally represented as sequentially interconnected stages.

First stage is the emergence and constant development of norms. Second – understanding and assimilation by the individual of the system of social norms of society, social group, personality, in other words, this is the stage of inclusion of a person in society, his socialization. Third stage – real acts, concrete behavior of the individual. This stage is the central link in the mechanism of social and normative regulation. It is in practice that it is revealed how deeply social norms have entered the consciousness of the individual. fourth stage the process of functioning of the norm is the evaluation and control of human behavior. At this stage, the degree of compliance or deviation from the norm is revealed. In the latter case, the society applies certain sanctions.

Types of sanctions - negative or positive, i.e. punishment or reward.

In contrast to the norms that are followed, values imply the choice of this or that object, condition, needs, goals that have a higher existence. Values are what is valued, what is significant for a person, what determines the life guidelines of his behavior and is recognized by society as such.

Within the framework of Parsons' "structural functionalism", the social order depends on the existence of common values shared by all people, which are considered legitimate and binding, acting as a standard by which the goals of action are selected. The connection between the social system and the personality system is carried out through the internalization of values in the process of socialization.

Values change with the development of society. They are formed on the basis of needs and interests. , however, do not copy them. Values are not a cast of needs and interests, but an ideal representation that does not always correspond to them.

Positive motivations are based on values that are mastered by the individual and become value orientations, guide his mind and behavior.

Despite the ambiguous interpretation of the concept of "value orientations", all researchers agree that value orientations perform an important function of regulators of the social behavior of individuals.

Value Orientations- a product of the socialization of individuals, i.e. development of socio-political, moral, aesthetic ideals and immutable regulatory requirements for them as members of social groups, communities and society as a whole. Value orientations are one of the most stable personality characteristics. They form a kind of inner core of culture, determine the line of behavior of the individual.

conditionally ordered classification of values: vital, economic, social, political, moral, ecological, religious, aesthetic.

A hierarchy from the lowest to the highest values is possible.

N. I. Lapin offers its own classification of values, based on the following grounds:

By substantive content(spiritual and material, economic, social, political, etc.);

By role in the life of the individual(terminal and instrumental);

By functional orientation(integrating and differentiating, approved and denied);

By needs of individuals(vital, interactionist, socializational, life-meaning);

By type of civilization(values of societies of the traditional type, values of societies of the modernity , human values).

The settlement is the most important socio-territorial community

Settlement is a special type of social relations for settlement.

Underresettlement implies, on the one hand, the process of historically developing placement of people in the area world, country, region, locality, on the other - spatial form of organization of society, its territorial structure at a certain point in development.

The main forms of human settlement are the city and the countryside, which arose and are reproduced under the conditions of the social division of labor. The main trends in the development of settlement in modern society are set by law concentration and increasing variety of activities.

Agglomeration is a network of urban and rural settlements. This and other forms of settlement increase the opportunities for access to scientific, industrial and cultural information; to choose a job of any complexity and social significance; to access a variety of activities. (I will discuss agglomeration in more detail later.)

The settlement must be considered in at least two interrelated aspects.

The first - a settlement as an internally integral organism, a constantly functioning territorial and social system.

Second - settlement as part of a larger territorial social system of the region and the country as a whole.

At the heart of the structurelies a territorial community of people (society), united by a place of residence, common settlement interests, long-term goals of living together, historical traditions of development, spiritual and moral reasons, and others.

Modern cities are the largest man-made habitats.

City - a historically specific socio-spatial form of society existence.

Causes of the cityvery varied:

economic (production, trade, transport, etc.);

political (administration, military center, etc.);

natural-geographical (location, availability of minerals, etc.).

Cities perform numerous functions. The main ones are the following: 1) the social cell of society (group); 2) socio-territorial community; 3) the social environment of people's life.

Settlement communities are not homogeneous. First of all, they are divided into two large groups: city and village.

An important feature of settlements is their size. Allocate small settlements, medium and large cities.

Another indicator is the degree interdependence of communities suburbanites, for example, make complex connections with the city.

Communities also differ by population density or degree of concentration of people in certain areas. For example, communities sometimes do not occupy the entire territory belonging to him, but densely accumulate in relatively small areas (N. Smelser).

Communities differ by the duration of its existence.

Features of technical development can leave their imprint on the settlement community. So, before the invention of the car, people wanted to live close to each other. Residential houses, churches, shops were concentrated along the central square or village street.

The American sociologist L. Schnore proposes to classify communities according to the composition of the population, i.e. according to the age and occupation of their inhabitants.

Settler communities differ in their way of life and social mobility.

Park, Burgess, and other urban ecologists have noted two processes here: invasion and succession. The first means invasion, the second - inheritance. Their analysis helps to explain the reasons for the resettlement of groups of people of different incomes, as well as representatives of racial and ethnic groups in different parts of the city.

Theory of centralization. According to it, settler communities are formed when they are forced to trade in a certain central place, work together in a large factory, or exercise centralized control over a vast territory.

Hypothesis of concentric zones. (I have already spoken about this theory earlier. Let me briefly remind you of its essence.)

This theory deals with the distribution of towns and cities within a county.

According to the hypothesis of concentric zones, the development of the city is accompanied by the formation of concentric rings, or zones. Each ring contains certain economic and residential structures. The city has the following main zones, starting from the center.

Central District.

mixed zone.

Working area.

Residential area of the middle class.

privileged zone.

Agricultural areas located near the city.

Areas away from the city.

Theory of sectors . She pays attention to the analysis of long-term changes taking place in cities.

Theory of multi-core. The Burgess and Hoyot models assume the existence of one central business district. However, in many modern cities there are several business centers, as well as industrial and residential areas.

Wirth theory . He gave a definition of urbanism based on three features that characterize this concept: the size of the territory of cities, the density and heterogeneity of the population.

Compositional theory. Worlds. Wirth Theory. He gave a definition of urbanism based on three features that characterize this concept: the size of the territory of cities, the density and heterogeneity of the population. Subculture theory.

Domestic - urbanists and dezurbanists.

Category "ethnos" (Greek word - " ethnos ”) means a tribe, a people and is defined as a stable group of people historically established in a certain territory, having common features and cultural characteristics (including language, customs, traditions, self-knowledge, etc.)

Formation of an ethnosusually occurs on the basis of the unity of territory and economic life, but in the process of further development, many ethnic groups lose their common territory. Features expressing system properties of an already existing ethnic group and separating it from another ethnic group is the language, folk art, customs, traditions, norms of behavior, habits, i.e. cultural components that are passed down from generation to generation and form the so-called ethnic culture, which has a specific style for it.

One of the varieties of an ethnic group is a race . The human race is historically formed areal groups of people connected by a unity of origin, which is manifested in a special combination of such hereditary biological traits as skin color, facial features and physique.

Social researchers believe that there is no such thing as a race based on objective biological differences. They believe that race is formed on a social basis or on the basis of imagined biological characteristics, which distinguishes it from other groups.

Thus, race is a social concept formed as a result of the ascription of characteristic biological characteristics to a group.

Along with race, there are also such ethnic communities as clan (clan), tribe, nationality, nation. They are joined by national (ethnic) and ethnographic groups.

A characteristic feature of the clan and tribe as the earliest form of community organization is that they were based on blood ties.

All the peoples of the world have passed through this initial stage of development.

In the conditions of a slave-owning society, nationalities arise.

With the disintegration of the feudal system and the emergence of capitalism, a new form of community of people arises - the nation.

Ethnic (national) identity- reflection of the consciousness of the nation and other ethno-social community in the individual consciousness of their members, expressing the result of the latter's assimilation of ideas about the historical experience, state and prospects for the development of their people (ethnos), its values and norms, as well as its place and role among other peoples and relationships between them.

The roots of nationalism and national feelings are at the level of the "collective unconscious". For one or another ethnic group, over the entire thousand-year history, myths, symbols, memories, stereotypes have accumulated associated with the perception of another nation, nationality. They are often associated with insult or humiliation of national dignity. By themselves, they may or may not lead to ethnic conflicts. It's all about the historical situation

After the October Revolution, the center (Russia) seemed to “shake up the backward outskirts”, and the periphery was mobilized. This is the result of the official policy of the Soviet regime, Eisenstadt believes. Industrialization crushed underdeveloped peoples in the past. As a result, the periphery turned out to be quite closely connected with the center, and its most active representatives were admitted to the elite strata of the rapidly growing Soviet bureaucracy. A contradiction arose between the comparatively high level of development of the periphery elite and attempts by political means to drive it into passive obedience. So a mine was laid under the building of the USSR. A similar prospect, according to the author, threatens Russia itself (see: Sociology: A course of lectures for technical universities. Ekaterinburg, 1994).

Dear friends!

Our website is powered by pure passion. We do not require registration, money for downloading books. So it was and so it will always be. But to host a site on the Internet, funds are required - hosting, a domain name, etc.

Please don't be indifferent - help us keep the site alive. Any help would be greatly appreciated. Thank you!

In psychological science, there are various approaches to the study of personality. The most widespread in foreign psychology are three theories, namely: biogenetic, sociogenetic, psychogenetic.

The biogenetic theory puts the biological processes of the maturation of the organism as the basis for the development of the personality. The American psychologist of the early 20th century, S. Hall, considered the biogenetic "law of recapitulation" to be the main law of development, according to which individual development, ontogenesis, repeats the main stages of phylogenesis. In the typological classifications developed in the 20th century by E. Kramer (1925), W. Sheldon (1954), an attempt was made to link the character of a person with his physical. Biologism is especially bright in the interpretation of personality 3. . According to his teaching, all behavior of the individual is due to unconscious biological drives or instincts. The development of a personality occurs due to the adaptation of biological nature to life in society, the development of ways to satisfy needs that are consistent with the "Super-I".

L. S. Vygotsky explains the personality from the point of view of the cultural and historical development of mankind: “Personality is a social concept, it embraces the supranatural, historical in man. It is not born, but arises as a result of cultural development, therefore personality is a historical concept.

The emergence of personality as a systemic quality is due to the fact that the individual, in joint activities with others, changes the world and, through these changes, transforms himself (A. N. Leontiev, S. L.). Personality is considered in the unity of the individual and the conditions of the social environment (B. G., A. N. Leontiev).

Personality is a relatively late product of the socio-historical and ontogenetic development of man. The real basis of the personality is the totality of social relations to the world, those relations that are realized in activity, more precisely, in the totality of diverse activities. The formation of a personality is the formation of a single system of personal meanings.

Personality is a person taken in the system of such psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifested in social connections and relationships by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are essential for himself and those around him.

Mental life has a definite structure. In psychological science, we can meet the selection and description three components of personality:

1. Orientation of personality. It includes various properties of the system of interacting needs and interests that make up the worldview of the individual, that is, in other words, the orientation of the individual is the system of its relations to the world around it, these are the motives of the individual's behavior.

2. Possibilities of the individual. This component includes that system of abilities and inclinations that ensures success in some kind of activity.

3. Steel human behavior. First of all, this includes temperament and character. In the character system, one can single out, firstly, moral qualities and properties (attitude towards people, responsibility), and secondly, volitional qualities.

The structure in the general sense is a set of stable links between the many components of an object, ensuring its integrity and identity to itself. When the structure of the personality is considered, many questions arise: what to refer to the components of the personality, what connections between the selected components are system-forming. This leads to the fact that almost every specialist who studies personality creates his own personality structure. In domestic psychology, there are a number of attempts to present the structure of personality (A.G. Kovalev, V.S. Merlin, K.K. Platonov, V.A. Krutetsky, A.I. Shcherbakov).

Among the large number of personality structures proposed by domestic psychologists, the most generally accepted is structure of K. K. Platonov. He singled out four main components in the personality structure: orientation, experience, mental processes and biopsychic properties. Orientation, according to K.K. Platonov, is directly related to the beliefs, worldview, ideals, inclinations, interests, desires and inclinations of the individual, and all these components are socially conditioned.

Personal experience is directly manifested in habits, abilities, skills, knowledge. These structural components of the personality are also predominantly socially conditioned, although the role of biological factors, especially innate inclinations, is already more significant here than in relation to orientation.

Mental processes, such as sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, imagination, as well as will and feelings, despite significant individual characteristics, are system-forming components of the personality. In the human personality, these processes, in contrast to animals, are predominantly social in nature.

Biopsychic properties are manifested in temperament, gender and age characteristics, in congenital pathological abnormalities in the development of the organism. These components of the personality are due to heredity and practically do not carry a social principle.

Separately, this structure presents two more systemic factors - abilities and character. They seem to be superimposed on all other components, as they are directly related to orientation, experience, mental processes, and biopsychic properties.

A.V. Petrovsky and V.A. Petrovsky understood the structure of personality when it is viewed as a "supersensory" systemic quality of an individual. Considering the personality in the system of subjective relations, they distinguish three types of attribution (attribution, endowment) of the personal existence of an individual (or three aspects of the interpretation of personality).

The first aspect of consideration is intraindividual personal attribution: personality is interpreted as a property inherent in the subject himself;

the personality is immersed in the inner space of the individual's being.

The second aspect is interindividual personal attribution as a way of understanding the personality, when the sphere of its definition and existence becomes the "space of interindividual relations".

The third aspect of consideration is meta-individual personal attribution. Here attention is drawn to the impact that, voluntarily or involuntarily, an individual has by his activity (individual and joint) on other people. Personality is already perceived from a new angle: its most important characteristics, which were tried to be seen as an individual, are proposed to be sought not only in himself, but also in other people. In this case, the personality acts as an ideal representation of the individual in other people, his otherness in them. The essence of this ideal representation lies in technical real effective changes in the intellectual and affective-need sphere of another person, which are produced by the activity of the subject or his participation in joint activities. The “other being” of an individual in other people is not a static imprint. We are talking about an active process, a kind of continuation of oneself in another, as a result of which a person acquires a second life in other people. Continuing in other people, with the death of the individual, the personality does not completely die. The individual as a carrier of personality passes away, but, personalized in other people, continues to live. In the words "he lives in us even after death" there is neither mysticism nor metaphor, it is a statement of the fact of the ideal representation of the individual after his material disappearance. Thus, a person can be characterized only in the unity of all three proposed aspects of consideration.

1) family 2) school 3) health care 4) church

which of the social institutions is characterized below "Its task is to ensure national security, protection from external threats"?
1) family 2) school 3) state 4) church

Task number 2. Which of the following terms does not characterize the concept of "Cossacks as a social group": a) general

forms of economic activity;

b) sustainability;

c) the existence of common social norms;

d) socio-territorial;

e) ethnic.

Which of the following terms does not characterize the concept of "electoral system":

a) proportional system;

b) totalitarianism;

c) deputy;

d) majority system;

e) mandate.

Which of the following terms does not characterize the concept of "economic sphere of society":

a) production;

b) political party;

d) distribution;

e) consumption.

Which of the following terms does not characterize the concept of "truth":

a) concreteness

b) adequacy of reality

c) science

d) subjectivity of form

e) content objectivity

Which of the following terms does not characterize the concept of "religion":

a) dogmatism;

b) skepticism;

c) ritual;

e) emotionality.

Which of the following terms does not characterize the concept of "social norms":

a) deviation;

c) aesthetics;

d) stratum;

1. Which of the examples illustrates the influence of society on nature? a) the slow pace of development of the relic tribes of Central Africa; b) construction

Tsimlyansk reservoir; c) the formation of races; d) the development of trade and navigation in ancient Greece. 2. Rational cognition (the process of thinking) does not involve the production of: a) concepts; b) judgments; c) representations; d) inferences. 3. The world religions do not include: a) Buddhism; b) Islam; c) animism; d) Christianity. 4. Determine which of the statements is true. A. The statement "An apple tree is a tree" is an inference. B. Saying “All men are mortal. Antonov is a man. Therefore, Antonov is mortal” is a judgment. 1) only A is true; 3) both statements are true; 2) only B is true; 4) both statements are wrong. 5. Social need is the need for: 1) food; 2) air; 3) water; 4) family. 6. Social norms are: a) traditions; b) documents; c) morals; d) contracts; e) the laws of nature. 7. The family as a social institution performs the following functions: a) reproductive; b) leisure; c) educational; d) socialization; e) erotic. 8. The economic sphere of society is characterized by (-s): 1) the most important discoveries and inventions in science; 2) national differentiation; 3) social division of labor; 4) social conflicts. 9. The meaningful stimuli of human activity include: 1) motives; 2) attraction; 3) habits; 4) emotions.

Which example illustrates the influence of society on nature? a) the slow pace of development of the relic tribes of Central Africa; b)

construction of the Tsimlyansk reservoir; c) the formation of races; d) the development of trade and navigation in ancient Greece. 2. Rational cognition (the process of thinking) does not involve the production of: a) concepts; b) judgments; c) representations; d) inferences. 3. The world religions do not include: a) Buddhism; b) Islam; c) animism; d) Christianity. 4. Determine which of the statements is true. A. The statement "An apple tree is a tree" is an inference. B. Saying “All men are mortal. Antonov is a man. Therefore, Antonov is mortal” is a judgment. 1) only A is true; 3) both statements are true; 2) only B is true; 4) both statements are wrong. 5. Social need is the need for: 1) food; 2) air; 3) water; 4) family. 6. Social norms are: a) traditions; b) documents; c) morals; d) contracts; e) the laws of nature. 7. The family as a social institution performs the following functions: a) reproductive; b) leisure; c) educational; d) socialization; e) erotic. 8. The economic sphere of society is characterized by (-s): 1) the most important discoveries and inventions in science; 2) national differentiation; 3) social division of labor; 4) social conflicts. 9. The meaningful stimuli of human activity include: 1) motives; 2) attraction; 3) habits; 4) emotions. 10. What type of family prevails in an industrial society? a) extended family, b) small family, c) large family, d) nuclear family, e) temporary unregistered marriage. 11. Unlike nature, society: 1) is a system; 2) is in development; 3) acts as a creator of culture; 4) develops according to its own laws. 12. Which of the features is inherent in a traditional society? 1) developed factory production; 2) creation of the main product in agriculture; 3) completion of the industrial revolution; 4) highly developed infrastructure. 13. . All types of industrial, social and spiritual activities of a person and society, as well as all their results in the aggregate, can be called: 1) culture; 2) economy; 3) worldview; 4) history. 14. What function of science is illustrated by the development of new ways to protect a person's home from unauthorized intrusion? 1) cognitive; 2) prognostic; 3) explanatory; 4) social. 15. Are the following judgments about the relationship between the spheres of public life correct? A. The growth of government spending on the production of new types of weapons is an example of the connection between the political and economic spheres of society. B. Financing of the activities of the museum by a patron is an example of the connection between the economic and spiritual spheres of society. 1) only A is true; 2) only B is true; 3) both judgments are true; 4) both judgments are wrong. 16. For which science is the question of the relationship between the concepts of "good" and "evil" the main one? 1) psychology; 2) ethics; 3) aesthetics; 4) sociology. 17. A person, unlike an animal, has the ability to: 1) act together with his own kind; 2) see the purpose of their actions; 3) train offspring; 4) protect yourself from danger. 18. What activity is characterized by the generalization of the properties of things in concepts? 1) material and production; 2) social transformation; 3) spiritual and practical; 4) spiritual and theoretical. 1 19. A farmer works the land with the help of special equipment. The subject of this activity is: 1) land; 2) technique; 3) cultivated crop; 4) farmer. 20. Are the following statements about truth correct? A. The relativity of truth is due to the infinity and variability of the comprehended world. B. The relativity of truth is due to the limited cognitive capabilities of man. 1) only A is true; 2) only B is true; 3) both judgments are true; 4) both judgments are wrong. 21. Culture in a broad sense is 1) the level of technical development of society; 2) the totality of all the achievements of mankind; 3) the level of education of the population; 4) all genres of art. 22. Both humans and animals have needs for 1) social activity; 2) purposeful activity; 3) care for offspring; 4) changing the environment. 23. The activity of the state in the management of society is an example of activity: 1) economic; 2) spiritual; 3) social; 4) political. 24. Are the following judgments about truth correct? A. Relative truth is knowledge that necessarily gives rise to different points of view. B. Relative truth is called incomplete knowledge, true only in certain conditions. 1) only A is true; 2) only B is true; 3) both judgments are true; 4) both judgments are wrong. 25. The existence of enterprises of various forms of ownership is guaranteed in country A. The success of these enterprises directly depends on the demand of consumers for the manufactured goods. What type of economic systems can be attributed to the economy of country A.? 1) planned; 2) command; 3) market; 4) traditional.