UDC 001.891:005:330.131.7:658.1
Principles of risk management system research
N.V. Kapustina, Yu.V. Kuznetsov
1 Faculty of Economics, Moscow State University of Technology, Department of Economics and Management at Small and Medium Enterprises
2 Faculty of Economics, St. Petersburg State University, Department of Management and Planning of Socio-Economic Processes
Annotation. Building a methodology for the development and improvement of an integrated risk management system of an organization, taking into account changes in the external environment, is currently a top priority that requires an immediate solution.
abstract. The paper considers the methodics of working out and perfection of the whole system of risks" management with the account of changes occurring in the outward medium. The authors have proved that this is a top-priority task requiring an immediate solution.
Key words: management theory, economic systems, risks, system of risks" management, system approach Key words: management theory, economic systems, risks, system of risks" management, system approach
1. Introduction
The multiplicity of existing approaches in the theory of economic systems management requires the selection of key methodological principles for the study of risk management as an element of the economic system. The need for such a study is due to the important socio-economic role of risk management in an organization, especially at the present time in the context of the globalization of the economy and the transformation of business in a crisis. The current trend of transition from the industrial to the post-industrial stage of development of the world community is characterized by a change in the structure of reproduction processes, due to the flow of digital information, both at the macro and micro levels. This trend is global in nature and affects the development of all countries of the world, cities and regions and, ultimately, the activities of specific organizations. Therefore, building a methodology for developing and improving an integrated risk management system of an organization, taking into account the changes taking place in the external environment, is currently a top priority that requires an immediate solution.
2. Methodology for developing a risk management system
The methodology for developing a risk management system in an organization finds its practical implementation in the formulation of goals; setting goals; choosing an appropriate research approach; taking into account the principles specifying the approach; choosing the necessary and most effective means and methods of research; search and selection of empirical materials.
The concept of scientific research methodology currently does not have a generally accepted definition and clear boundaries. Thus, the methodology of scientific research is considered both as "a logical organization of human activity, consisting in determining the goal, subject of research, approaches and guidelines in its conduct, choosing means and methods that determine the best result" (Korotkov, 2000), and as a scientific discipline - "the doctrine of the means and methods of cognition" (Shtoff, 1975), and as a system of "general fundamental ideas, principles from which the researcher proceeds and is guided in his cognitive activity" (Elchaninov, 1990). A more common understanding of the methodology, which we will adhere to during the study of the risk management system in an organization, is its understanding as a set of general principles, forms and methods that are used in the study of a particular scientific field, regardless of the degree of accuracy with which they are formulated. (Vorozhtsov, Moskalenko, 1986). Consequently, the methodology of science makes it possible to determine the constituent components of scientific research - goals, objectives, subject, object of study, a set of research methods, approaches, tools, tools and technologies necessary for their solution, and also forms the researcher's idea of the sequence of movement in the solution process scientific task.
The risk management system, like any system, consists of an object and a subject of management. Here the organization acts as a managed object, its economic relations with other
economic agents, workers and employees of the enterprise, acting on the production and technological processes of information flows. The controlled variable is the calculated value - the level of risk. The managing part or the subject of management, in this subsystem, is a special group of people (a division or an employee of an enterprise using the services of professional consultants), which, based on the information received, using various methods of risk theory, develops measures - control actions to reduce the level of risk or keep it in acceptable limits.
The risk management system in an organization, being open, on the one hand, is a part of the economic system that includes all the elements that characterize a given socio-economic formation, and on the other hand, a subsystem that combines all the processes occurring in the organization and activities related to with each other through both horizontal and vertical interactions.
The risk management system must meet a number of conditions inherent in any system and economic systems in particular. The first and main principle of the systems approach is the principle of integration (Kuznetsov, 2006). The ability of the risk management system to integrate new elements means that the entire risk management system can respond flexibly and adapt to the emergence of new types and factors of risk.
From the principle of integration comes a chain of derived principles, the main of which are the integrity of objects and the complexity of their analysis (Kuznetsov, 2006). The risk management system is an integral complex of organizationally and functionally related elements, focused on the overall assessment of the totality of all types and risk factors and the management of processes that can minimize the impact of risk factors on the system, taking into account the nature of the relationship between these risks.
The complexity of the risk management system lies in the need to take into account the complexity of the object of management (a set of risks), including the relationship between risks, all possible consequences of the manifestation of risk and the peculiarities of the impact of the proposed procedures on the risk (including situations when the fight against some risks gives rise to others) (Chernova, Kudryavtsev , 2005).
Trends in the development of science lead researchers to the need to develop a systematic approach on a dialectical basis as a unified general scientific methodology that has really new possibilities. The system approach uses one main way to analyze an object - its decomposition into subsystems. Dialectics, on the other hand, introduces another principle for the analysis of an object - its heterogeneity, identity in polysemy. In other words, one and the same object at the same time has essentially different, in many respects opposite qualities. A systematic approach to risk management on a dialectical basis involves the definition of the internal inconsistency of a complex system as a whole.
The risk management system, like any other complex socio-economic phenomenon, develops, obeying the laws of dialectics, thanks to the internal dynamic interaction of contradictions within itself. Contradictions between thinking and practical activity, the goal and the result arise constantly and require resolution. The desire of the organization to maximize the satisfaction of its needs (reducing costs, making a profit, etc.) gives rise to competition, since these needs can be satisfied by and through their limitation or elimination from other business entities. Setting goals, determining ways to develop the risk management system is the resolution of an objective contradiction between the current state of the risk management system and the prospects for its development. The resolution of this contradiction at a certain point in time does not mean its complete elimination, it may arise in new conditions, defining new tasks that require the adoption of new appropriate decisions.
From the point of view of synergetics, the specifics of the development of the risk management system, as well as any other "humanitarian systems", according to G. Nicolis and I. Prigozhin (2003), is determined by the behavior of the acting forces in interaction with the conditions imposed by the external environment. This point is key, since in the absence of strong disturbances from the outside, the system remains stable indefinitely, and there are no factors that encourage the system to develop, and in case of spontaneous violation of this order, a large number of solutions and bifurcation phenomena arise that encourage the system to develop. . Development entails the emergence of new qualities of the system, which may consist in improving the use of factors of production, the appropriation of social values (material and spiritual benefits), the development of the human personality, and the improvement of social relations; an increase in order, an increase in organization, an increase in information, a decrease in the entropy of the system. Innovation is the main driver of economic development; since everything new appears only due to the dialectical unity of necessity and chance. Randomness acts as a constructive factor of development, for which the diversity of accidents, and, consequently, of possibilities, is of fundamental importance.
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It should be noted that risk is a motivating factor in the creation and development of special independent management elements in the organization and the formation of a risk management system. The economic significance of the existence of such a system in an organization lies in the fact that it allows you to regulate the development of the organization system, the parameters of the quality of goods and services produced, form public opinion and attitude towards the organization.
3. Methodology development approaches
The unity, integrity and structural and functional complexity of the risk management system in an organization requires an adequate approach that would provide an appropriate perception and study of the object, its functioning and development. There are numerous approaches to the development of methodology, which are characterized by different conceptual models, mathematical tools, starting positions. Classifying approaches according to various criteria, they distinguish systemic, conceptual and aspect (Korotkov, 2000). With the aspect approach, the choice stops at one facet of the problem. The conceptual approach involves the preliminary development of a set of key provisions that determine the general direction, architectonics and continuity of the study. The systemic approach, however, reflects a higher level of research methodology and requires the maximum possible consideration of all structural aspects of problems in their interconnection and integrity, highlighting the main and essential, determining the links and interaction between the components, characteristics and properties of the elements of the system and subsystems.
In any system, the work of the whole is important - it is the result of growth and dynamic balance, adaptation and integration, and not mere technical efficiency.
From the consideration of the experience of the development of economic systems, it follows that the traditional system approach, which consists in decomposing an object into subsystems and isolated study of individual subsystems, relationships, aspects, gives rise to numerous intractable problems. The main problem is that contradictions can arise between the elements of the system, connected to a greater extent not only with the study of the properties and laws of the functioning of elements and subsystems, but also with the choice of the best structure, the optimal organization of the interaction of elements, the definition of operating modes under conditions of active influence of external environment.
Multi-criteria, weak structure and uncertainty of the problems of risk management system development require the use of a systematic approach and the development of a holistic system methodology. The system approach is an explicit expression of procedures for representing objects as systems and ways of describing them, explaining, foreseeing, constructing, etc. (Spitznadel, 2000).
A systematic approach on a dialectical basis involves the definition of the internal inconsistency of a complex system as a whole. At the moment, in the theory and practice of management, there are many examples when, as a result of changing one of the elements of the system, the entire system remained constant, or changed, but in the opposite direction.
The extraordinary complexity of society at the beginning of the 21st century, capable of "undertaking a huge number of bifurcations" (bifurcations), creates a new situation in the world, since complex systems are "highly sensitive to fluctuations" (oscillations), and this "inspires us at the same time with hope, and anxiety." All this led to the fact that the world "has forever lost the guarantees of stable, enduring laws" (Prigozhin, Stengers, 1986).
4. Chaos theory - a stage in the development of methodology
An important step in the development of the methodology of modern science was the formation of chaos theory (Kuznetsov, 1997). In accordance with the results of modern research in the field of nonlinear dynamics and synergetics, the chaotic behavior of complex systems is not evidence of our ignorance or incompleteness of our knowledge of the relevant systems, but is due to the very nature of things. Chaos is primordial. Such is the nature of things that their behavior is permeated with chance, spontaneous, largely unpredictable, chaotic. One of the fundamental facts of the new theory is the discovery of strange, chaotic attractors of the behavior of complex systems in various fragments of the natural and human world. This testifies to the universality, universality, omnipresence of chaos.
Chaos is like a virtual world, a world of teeming potentialities, an abyss of hidden possibilities of the world. Chaos is an element that conceals infinitely possible forms, and order is the realization, manifestation, discovery in being of one or some of these forms.
Chaos in the physical sense is in no way identical with disorder and is not opposed to order. Chaos in complex systems of very different nature, studied in the theory of chaos and in the theory of self-organization, is always relative. It contains a relative measure of chaos and a measure of order. Chaos is organized in a certain way. It is not structureless.
Kapustina N.V., Kuznetsov Yu.V. Principles of risk management system research
Chaos as a complex relationship of order and disorder in real systems performs many different functions in the processes of self-organization in nature, the human psyche and society:
Chaos as a way of reaching the trend of self-structuring of an open non-linear environment;
Chaos as a way to synchronize the pace of evolution of subsystems within a complex system and thus as a way to keep it intact;
Balancing on the edge of chaos as a way to maintain complex organization (self-organized criticality);
Chaos as a factor of adaptation to changing environmental conditions;
The transition from order to chaos, from symmetry to asymmetry, and vice versa, as a way of giving birth to beauty;
Chaos, more precisely, the proportion of internal chaos, as a necessary addition to external management, control, planning, as a way of self-governing a complex system;
Chaoticity, dispersion, diversity of elements as the basis for achieving their unity, organization (unity through diversity as a principle of systems theory, order through chaos (I. Prigogine), order through noise (H. von Foerster), organizing randomness (A. Atlan));
Chaos as a stimulus, an impetus for evolution, spontaneity as a vital impulse;
Chaos as a factor in the renewal of a complex organization (Knyazeva, 2002).
The boundlessness of the knowledge of chaos is associated with the disclosure and study of the most diverse functions of chaos, both contributing to self-organization and evolution, and inhibiting them, both constructive and creative, and destructive and destructive.
Systems theory and chaos theory determines the need to consider the behavior of the system as a whole. Living systems are integration, and their character depends on the whole. Considering risk management from this point of view, it can be noted that in order to understand the problems of risk management in an organization, it is necessary to consider this process as a system that causes these problems.
An analysis of various areas of application, methodological and conceptual provisions of system research, practical experience of their use shows that the specificity of system research lies in their focus on studying problems with subsequent focus not only on the knowledge of the essence and relationships of the objects under study, but also on the creation of tools that provide management these objects, the resolution of existing problems (Filimonova, 2005).
The scientific literature systematizes the actual problems of using a systematic approach in various fields of knowledge, which are as follows (Blauberg et al., 1978):
Clarification of definitions and construction of a formalized description of the basic concepts of a systematic approach;
Theoretical description of specific methods of system research;
Building classifications of systems;
Development of methodological foundations of management theory, which will expand the possibilities
research of complex and supercomplex systems;
Development of methodological foundations of the theory of hierarchical systems;
Development of methodological foundations for the design of complex technical and social
economic systems.
Thus, there is a need to identify analogues in related fields of knowledge, which will make it possible to adapt existing methods and tools to solve various kinds of problems that arise at the present time and, possibly, in the future in various types of economic systems with a hierarchical structure.
5. Problems of development of risk management
In the development of the risk management system as part of the economic system, the following problems can be identified:
Lack of information base necessary for analysis, forecasting and risk management in organizations;
Weak structured problems;
An increase in negative consequences in the field of managing socio-economic systems caused by a rapid change in the external environment of systems;
Lack of methodological developments, tools, as well as adequate means to ensure the timely solution of semi-structured problems in risk management;
Lack of professional management personnel in the field of risk management, since it is very difficult for people with experience in a planned economy to adjust to the pace of the modern business environment;
Lack of social, environmental and economic security of organizations and processes.
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The problems that arise in the process of formation and development of the risk management system are multi-criteria, poorly structured, and often have the nature of uncertainty.
In the literature, a number of approaches for conducting system analysis are distinguished: system-component, system-structural, system-functional (Akimov, 2002). In relation to the risk management system, their essence is as follows:
The system-component approach reflects the study of the risk management system based on the identification of its main elements and subsystems, the interaction of which provides qualitative features that are unique to this system. The principles on the basis of which the main elements and subsystems are distinguished are determined by the very structure of the risk management system, the goals and objectives of the study, as well as the coverage of factors taken into account;
The system-structural approach involves the study of internal connections and interactions between elements and subsystems. The structural properties of the risk management system are determined by the stability and nature of the relationship between the components of the subsystem. The system can detect complex behavior, however, some of its properties remain unchanged. Changing the characteristics of individual elements of the system does not always lead to a change in the quality of the system, it remains relatively constant within certain limits. As a result of the accumulation of quantitative changes within the system under the influence of the external environment, its subsequent development can occur, which can take place either evolutionarily or revolutionary.
The system-functional approach involves the analysis of functional dependencies between individual subsystems and elements. The functional description of the elements of the risk management system can be represented as a hierarchical structure that contains coordinating aspects - harmonization of functions and components horizontally - and subordinate links - coordination of the functions of elements and subsystems vertically. Subordination determines the subordination of the functions of some elements and subsystems to the functions of others, determines the specific place and different significance of each of the components in the implementation of the functions of the entire risk management system in the organization.
The combination of the above approaches to the analysis of systems makes it possible to analyze not only the state of the object of study itself, but also those established interactions carried out by this object in the course of its reproduction. In this case, we are talking about the form of interaction between the organization and the risk management system, as an element of the economic system of the organization.
6. Methodological principles of the risk management system
When developing a risk management system in an organization, it is necessary to proceed from the multiplicity of this process based on the definition and improvement of the initial model of the system through the interaction of its constituent parts. In this case, the components are considered together, in interconnection and dialectical unity, since the disclosure of the essence of the problems of the risk management system in an organization is possible only through studying the dynamics of the interaction of its components. This approach, in turn, requires clarification of the underlying systemic principles. The following principles are distinguished in the literature: hierarchy, integration, formalization, physicality, modelability, purposefulness, a combination of centralization and decentralization, etc. (Gamidov, 2000).
The selection of methodological principles is due to the need to disclose the essence of the development of the risk management system, its function and impact on the macroeconomic system of the organization as a whole and its individual subsystems. In this regard, the study is based on the existing methodological principles proposed by us. Based on the foregoing, the following methodological principles can be distinguished.
1. The principle of hierarchy requires the study of the risk management system at the micro, meso and macro levels. The risk management system is a set of interconnected and structured decisions and actions at all levels of management in the organization, adopted and implemented in various subsystems of the organization. Hierarchy is manifested through the organizational structure of the organization and lies in the fact that the risk management system operates in each division of the organization, regardless of the number of hierarchical levels and the location of the subsystem in the hierarchy. There is a high degree of dependence of the upper levels of the hierarchy on the lower ones, since any slightest change in the element of the subsystem of the lower level of the hierarchy can lead to cardinal changes at the upper level. The interaction of the system with the external environment is at the center of the problem of risk management, since it is the main source of uncertainty. Thus, risk management introduces changes in the socio-economic processes occurring at the meso- and macro levels.
2. The principle of integration - the study of the integrative properties and patterns of systems and their
Kapustina N.V., Kuznetsov Yu.V. Principles of risk management system research
complexes, the disclosure of the basic mechanisms of integration of the whole. This principle is manifested in the relationship between the elements of the risk management system themselves. The problem is that the risk management system is a subsystem of the organization and is forced to function in complex regularly changing socio-economic relations, where new types and risk factors constantly arise that require a flexible response of the entire system.
3. The principle of formalization necessitates the creation of methods, tools, approaches, definitions, estimates and obtaining quantitative characteristics. The problem of formalizability can be caused by rapid changes in the elements of the organization's risk management system. Therefore, there is a need to build formalized models, which makes it possible to choose methods, tools, approaches, definitions, assessments of the risk management system, which should be described in several functional spaces that are consistent with each other, which will make it possible to discover a new essence, new properties and systematization possibilities. the objects themselves.
4. The principle of modeling. Any system can be represented by a variety of models that reflect certain aspects of its essence. Modeling the development processes of a risk management system makes it possible to explore certain properties using one or more narrowly focused models. In this case, the problem lies in the fact that part of the research on the risk management system considers descriptive models of a theoretical nature.
5. The principle of purposefulness, understood as a functional trend aimed either at achieving a certain ultimate goal, a certain state of the system, or at strengthening or maintaining some of its qualities by the risk management system. For this purpose, the realization of economic interests takes place. The economic interests of risk management lie in the systematic elimination of threats to economic security, minimizing the impact of risk factors on the organization's activities and, consequently, on profits. At the same time, the risk management system must adapt to the impact of the external environment and adapt to it. The development of purposeful systems, which is the risk management system, is aimed at achieving a global goal, therefore, the choice of a goal and its clear formulation are of particular importance here. Vague, incorrectly defined final goals entail ambiguities in the structure and management of the system, decision-making, which can lead to negative consequences. In practice, this principle is not sufficiently reflected: the existing goals of the risk management system are aimed at the internal part of the system and do not take into account its interaction with the external environment, that is, its openness.
6. Combination of principles of centralization and decentralization. A situation in which control comes from only one center (complete centralization) is considered justified if the subsystems are unable to independently withstand the influence of the external environment. However, the higher the degree of decentralization of management in the system, the more difficult it is to coordinate not only the goals of one level with the global goal, but also the goals of the elements of the system themselves. The achievement of a common goal in a decentralized system can be ensured by a stable monitoring mechanism that does not allow significant deviations from the achievement of the final goal. The complexities of combining centralization and decentralization in the risk management system must be resolved by developing a risk management standard in the organization, followed by specifying the risk management functions at the lower hierarchical levels of the organization's management.
7. The principle of expanding the boundaries of socio-economic systems means changing the quality of socio-economic systems by creating new economic institutions, expanding groups of influence (stakeholders), changes in the business environment, which generally leads to expanding the boundaries of the system horizontally and vertically and involves the use new methodological approaches for infrastructure integration. The peculiarity of the modern period of development of the Russian economic system lies in the fact that both the emergence of new institutions, processes and social phenomena and the modernization of old ones are taking place simultaneously. In the first case, adaptation is a response to innovations, in the second - to the transformation of existing institutions and organizations. In the general case, the described processes lead to the expansion of boundaries both inside and outside the system, which leads to the use of new methodological approaches.
8. The principle of continuity in time over the phases of the life cycle means the ongoing targeted regulation of the risk management system. Support for the risk management system must be carried out constantly, depending on the phase of the life cycle in which the organization is located.
9. The principle of orderliness of risk management actions in the organization. The problem is that in an emergency situation, with the slightest deviation of the system, its management becomes quite complicated and may have the character of some spontaneity. It is necessary to have methodologies, tools, management algorithms with orderly actions carried out in
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certain sequence.
10. The principle of timely information consists in timely informing all elements of the risk management system about its possible change. To this end, it is necessary to ensure the free movement of information between all levels of management, both from top to bottom and from bottom to top.
11. The principle of strategic predictability is that the risk management system should not only carry out ongoing risk management and strive to minimize risk losses. It should also be aimed at assessing the risks of the organization's strategic development perspective.
7. Conclusion
In accordance with the principles discussed above, it is possible to determine the main requirements for the risk management system in the organization:
Perspective of development - correspond to the perspective of the organization's development and assess the risks of decisions made in the future;
Communication - free movement of information and constant interaction between the upper and lower levels of management;
All-situational - the ability to manage in all emerging situations, including crisis situations, when communication with the control object may be lost for some time;
Flexibility - change of risk management methodology depending on the situation and changes in long-term trends;
Efficiency - the ability to respond in a timely manner and change depending on the situation and business conditions;
Efficiency - the ability to effectively implement management decisions aimed at the entire process as a whole with a minimum amount of relevant resources;
The adequacy of management tools that are components of the system and make up the practical support of certain methods, its theoretical premises that underlie the methodological justifications;
Ease of description and accessibility of use in practical management in the organization.
The presented methodological principles for studying the risk management system can serve as the basis for building and improving management systems in modern organizations of various levels in conditions of rapid changes in the external environment.
Literature
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2.1.1. Key principles and their definition
In the words of G. Kunz and S. O "Donnell, "elements of management science, for example, fundamental principles, like the principles of other sciences, remain unchanged, even if the manager in a particular situation decides to neglect them" . Principles considered as:
the starting points of the theory,
guiding idea,
the initial phase of knowledge systematization,
and also as a meaningful generalization based on the analysis of facts, while the facts in turn serve as a constant verification of the correctness of already established principles;
in control theory, a principle is understood as basic rule of management organization . An example of this can be the famous principles of A. Fayol and E. Deming.
To key principles building a methodology and tools for the study of management systems should include four groups of principles (Fig. 2.1):
1) system-wide principles , building the logic of building the system configuration, as well as the logic of relations and connections between the elements of the system and the system with the external environment;
2) general research principles , serving as the basis of the cognitive process;
3) systems research principles characterizing the system as a structured informational fragment of some reality, defining the space of its cognition;
4) principles of cybernetics , reflecting the fundamental foundations of studying the purposeful behavior of a system, regardless of the object of its application.
Rice. 2.1. Systematization of the principles of research of control systems
2.1.2. System-Wide Principles
The main system-wide principles are integrity, structure, interdependence of the system and the environment, hierarchy, controllability, communication, unity of analysis and synthesis, multiplicity of descriptions of each system. The definitions of the principles given below are based on the materials of the works.
1) Integrity- the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements, namely:
the property of the system as a whole is not the sum of the properties of the elements;
the property of the system depends on the properties and mutual influence of the elements in the process of the system functioning;
elements combined into a system may lose a number of properties that are inherent to them outside the system;
the property of integrity is related to the purpose for which the system is created.
2) Structural- the possibility of describing the system through the establishment of its structure by displaying the totality of elements and relationships acting between them. At the same time, the behavior of the system depends not so much on the behavior of individual elements, but on the properties of its structure.
3) Interdependence of the system and environment- one of the conditions for the existence of the system. The system forms and manifests its properties in the process of interaction with the environment, while being the leading active object. The openness of the system, merging with the environment is clearly manifested in biological, ecological, economic, social, political and other systems. And if the system has not been configured, i.e. the boundary between the environment and special education is not distinguished, then the concept of the system extends to the entire environment.
4) Hierarchy- structural organization of complex systems, consisting in the division (decomposition) of the system into strata (levels) and the ordering of relationships (interactions) - from the highest level to the lowest. Hierarchy, or hierarchical ordering, is one of the first principles of building complex systems, which implies preparing the system for purposeful activity, for management.
In systems endowed with a hierarchical structure, management is decentralized. Subsystems or elements of the lower level receive at their disposal the right to make decisions and inevitably acquire a goal and a certain autonomy relative to each other. The growth of the hierarchical structure is a non-endless process, and for the reason that contradictions between the particular and the whole are brewing in the system. This causes constant problems of establishing the optimal measure of centralization and decentralization and the optimal distribution of functions and tasks between the hierarchical levels of the system.
5) Manageability- this is the ability of the system to achieve the set goal to direct (plan, organize, regulate and control) its development based on the knowledge and use of objective patterns, timely reveal contradictions and resolve them, overcome negative internal and external disturbances, prepare and make decisions. It is noted in [60] that the controllability of a system is similar in content to the concept of reachability: both characterize the possibility of performing the control task - achieving the goal.
6) Communication. The organizational system is not isolated from other systems, but is connected by many information channels with the environment, which is a complex and heterogeneous formation. When an object is isolated from the environment, its connections are identified, they are given orientation, the frequency of the exchange of "signals", the strength of their impact, etc. Obtaining and processing information about the state of the environment is a complex research task. Communication is also necessary for the implementation of communication between the structural units of the organization, which achieves its integrity as a system.
7) Unity of analysis and synthesis- the principle underlying the process of cognition of any object of reality; it implies the continuity of analysis and synthesis in the process of mental activity. Analysis forms the initial knowledge for research and involves the division of an object, system, phenomenon into its component parts, each of which is studied separately. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis, but is inextricably linked with it. Synthesis is a combination, integration of various elements, aspects of an object into a single whole, into a system.
8) Multiplicity of descriptions of each system. Due to the fundamental complexity of each system, its adequate knowledge requires the construction of many different models, each of which describes only a certain aspect of the system.
2.1.3. Systems Research Principles
The principles of systems research are based on the principles of general systems theory. These include: structuring, consistency, identification, abstraction, formalization.
1) Structuring represents the dismemberment of the system into "elementary" (structure-forming) units (elements, objects) and the establishment of relations between them, confirming the integrity of the system. Approaches to the structuring of the system are very diverse and are determined by the feature chosen by the researcher for grouping homogeneous and recognizing objects that differ from each other. The following can be used as a sign: the type of functional activity, levels and cycles of management, types of functions and management processes, etc. Some structure obtained in this way reflects a relatively stable aspect of the system and can be considered as its structural model.
2) Consistency is the study of an object from two interrelated positions. The first position is that the object under study is considered as a system; the second position defines the environment of the system as an external environment, which is a complex system. There are two-way connections filled with signals between the system and the external environment. The principle of consistency is based on the interdependence of the system and the environment and the unity of analysis and synthesis. When studying the internal environment of an organization, consistency is manifested in the synthesis of structural and functional elements, parameters and factors that determine the effectiveness of its functioning.
3) Identification(identification) - determination of the identity of the entire system or its element to the accepted analogue or the replacement of a real object with a formal object, its model. Identification also means the establishment of a specific impact of factors on the system. In cybernetics, the identification of control objects is the choice of a class of a mathematical model, a criterion for matching the model and an object, as well as building a model for the implementation of its input and output signals [124].
To identify management processes, K. Menard proposed a set of "schemes" (models) containing references and recommendations, namely:
historical type schemes based on accumulated experience;
external schemas based on schemas of interaction with others
organizations;
schemes like "plans", appealing to predetermined goals.
The widespread use of the identification principle in management is associated with the increasing use of scientific management, which develops an analytical management style.
According to the principle of multiple descriptions of each system, the model of the studied reality serves as the main research tool. Any model is an abstraction of a real system.
4) Abstraction- this is the formation of an image of reality through distraction and replenishment. Distraction simplifies, and replenishment complicates the image of reality. Identification and structuring that precede abstraction act as a tool for simplification or replenishment in the model.
5) Formalization- this is a reflection of the image of reality using formal languages, namely the language of mathematics, logic, semiotics, which allows you to get rid of recourse to intuitive ideas and move on to more rigorous conclusions and statements. The results of formalization are, first of all, mathematical, simulation, semiotic models of the reality under study, as well as various types of algorithms, artificial scientific languages, etc.
2.1.4. Principles of cybernetics
The general principles of cybernetics as a science of the unity of control processes, regardless of the object of their application, include: feedback, black box, external addition, information transformation, purposefulness of control and equifinality. Definitions of the principles are given based on the materials of the book “Cybernetics and Production Management” by S. Veer, with the preservation of the author's text fragments from the works and:
ü Feedback- the flow of information that, after measuring the results of the functioning of the system or its part, enters the control system to develop an impact on the control algorithm;
ü "black box"- a system (object) in which only input and output parameters are available to an external observer, and the internal structure and the processes occurring in it, due to “the reason of inaccessibility for study or in connection with abstraction, are not the subject of research”;
ü external addition- the inclusion of a "black box" in the control chain in conditions when the formalization language used is insufficient to describe the real situation of the system and this disadvantage is eliminated by the procedure of external addition;
ü information transformation- the system is considered as a "machine for processing information" in order to streamline it, reduce uncertainty and diversity, and this makes the behavior of the system predictable;
ü purposefulness of management- “management is an integral property of any system”, and the system “is an organism that has its own purpose and its own unity”;
ü equifinality- the existence of a finite unordered set of paths for the transition of the system from various initial states to the final state, i.e. the transition of the system from the initial states to the final one is specified not in a unique way.
Let us give a brief explanation of the stated principles.
1) Feedback in cybernetics, in contrast to its system-wide representation, it includes only the flow of information with the results of measuring the output flow of the system and is called information feedback. The main idea of feedback is to monitor the output information and dynamically analyze the results of the system's behavior relative to the trajectory of its operation specified by the plan. When deviations are detected and depending on their significance, control actions are developed. Feedback input creates a closed control loop.
In cybernetics there are negative and positive feedback:
if, under the action of feedback, the initial deviation of the resulting (output) parameter or indicator, caused by the perturbing influence, decreases, then they say that there is negative feedback, otherwise - positive;
positive feedback is formed from unipolar (only positive or only negative) parametric deviations.
They accumulate and lead to losses in the stable operation of the system as a whole. Negative feedback, represented as an alternation of positive and negative parametric deviations, adjusts the control to stabilize the functioning of the system relative to the given trajectory of its development. Feedback mechanism makes the system self-adjusting, i.e. having the ability to compensate for parametric disturbances, and increases the degree of its internal organization.
A special case is homeostatic feedbacks, which reduce external influence to zero; the property of a system to remain unchanged in the flow of events is called invariance.
In the management of organizations, feedbacks are considered both as reinforcing and as balancing:
reinforcing ties can be both engines of growth and generate an acceleration of the decline of the organization;
balancing (or stabilizing) feedback is found wherever goal-oriented behavior exists.
Then negative feedback is balancing, and positive feedback is reinforcing.
2) Introduction of the principle "black box" - this is an opportunity to study complex systems, using the relationship between input resources and output results of its activity, without considering the mechanism of resource transformation. An important feature of this principle should be noted. No matter how detailed the behavior of an object presented in the form of a “black box” is studied, it is not possible to obtain an unambiguous conclusion about its internal potential. This is due to the fact that different, similar to the original objects are characterized by the same behavior. The approach based on the "black box" principle has become widespread in experimental studies of systems, when the behavior of the system is of more interest than its structure.
Identification of the control system in the form of a cybernetic model with a closed loop, in which the control object is a “black box”, is shown in Fig. 2.2.
Rice. 2.2. Cybernetic model of a closed control system:
X 0 (t) - impact algorithm;
X(t) - adjustable value;
(t) - deviation;
R - regulator;
(t) - disturbing action applied to the object;
(f) - regulatory action
3) Principle external addition - a practical method for overcoming the incompleteness of formal languages (Gödel's theorem). This principle boils down to the fact that any control language is ultimately insufficient to fulfill the tasks assigned to it, but this shortcoming can be eliminated by including a "black box" in the control chain. For example, the development of a production plan based on mathematical models always requires a certain addition due to “outside control” to adapt (correct) model calculations to non-formalizable operating conditions or due to changes in some of them under the influence of the external environment. The element of "management from outside" is built into the decision-making chain as a "black box", since it also cannot be precisely defined.
4) Principle equifinality indicates that control is associated with the presence of several final paths or alternatives for the transition of the system from various initial states to the final state. Understanding the principle under consideration in the study of control systems expands the concept of control optimality to multicriteria optimization. This procedure is accompanied by the development of certain groups of criteria for various paths of system transitions from the initial to the final state.
In general, the principles outlined are interrelated, complementary and serve as a fundamental basis for the study of control systems.
COURSE WORK
The role of research in the organization. Development of control systems
Introduction
The complication of the forms of scientific research occurs with a simultaneous change in the methods and principles of research. Until the middle of the 19th century, the so-called “elementarism” dominated science, the essence of which is to divide the whole into parts, study the parts, and only after that derive the properties of the whole.
By the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the idea of the irreducibility of the whole to the sum of its parts appeared in science. In this regard, the principle of research “from the whole to the parts” arises.
The evolution of scientific knowledge and its applications in practice has led to an increasing differentiation of theoretical and applied areas. Many special disciplines have arisen that use similar formal methods, but refract them to such an extent, taking into account the needs of specific areas of research, that the “narrow” specialists working in them cease to understand each other. At the same time, back in the 19th century, the number of complex projects and problems requiring the participation of specialists from various fields of knowledge began to increase sharply.
The development of highly specialized disciplines often began to reach a generalizing level. There is a need for specialists of a "broad profile" who have knowledge not only in their field, but also in related fields and who are able to generalize this knowledge, use analogies, and form complex models. The concept of a system, previously used in the ordinary sense, has become a special general scientific category. Generalizing scientific directions began to appear, which historically sometimes arose in parallel on a different applied or theoretical basis.
The role of the integration of sciences, the organization of relationships and interaction between various scientific areas at all times was performed by philosophy, which at the same time was the source of a number of scientific areas. In the 30s of the XX century, philosophy was the source of the emergence of a generalizing direction, called the general theory of systems by L. von Bertalanffy.
Systems research initially developed on a natural scientific basis. After World War II, the principle of systemic research experienced its rebirth on the basis of use in modern technology and became widespread in the socio-economic sciences. The needs of practice almost simultaneously with the emergence of systems theory led to the emergence of a direction called operations research. This direction arose in connection with military tasks, but then it became quite widespread in other applied areas due to the developed mathematical apparatus based on optimization methods, mathematical programming and statistics, as well as the development of computer technology.
The formation of systemic ideas was due to both the development of science and the needs of production. Since the middle of the 20th century, with the advent of complex and large technical systems, a special theoretical substantiation of a methodological nature has been required. Complexity and complexity of problems have sharply increased. The urgency of solving problems has increased significantly. The costs of implementing a solution began to reach enormous proportions, and the risk of failure became more and more tangible. An increasing number of interrelated circumstances had to be taken into account.
Methods were needed that would allow analyzing complex problems as a whole, ensuring the consideration of many alternatives, each of which was described by a large number of variables and was characterized by significant uncertainty.
The systematic direction of research is developing in various fields of modern science. Among them, first of all, it should be noted cybernetics, in which the concept of "system" is basic. Information modeling of the behavior of complex objects, the study of self-organization and self-regulation processes, economic cybernetics - all these areas of research are based on a systematic study of objects, tasks, problems, processes.
With the development of systematic research, it became obvious that we are not talking about a single general scientific concept, but about a new direction of scientific research, about new principles of scientific thinking, about the formation of a new approach to the objects of research.
1. Characteristics of the study of management systems of organizations
1.1 The role of research in the organization
management systems research
The need for a modern organization to meet the requirements of a market economy causes the need for its constant improvement, organizational development. The basis of organizational innovation is the study of the activities of organizations.
The study of management systems is an activity aimed at developing and improving management in accordance with constantly changing external and internal conditions. In the conditions of the dynamism of modern production and social structure, management must be in a state of continuous development, which today cannot be ensured without. study of the ways and possibilities of this development, without choosing alternative directions. Management research is carried out in the daily activities of managers and staff and in the work of specialized analytical groups, laboratories, departments. Sometimes consulting firms are invited to conduct research. The need for management systems research is dictated by a fairly large range of problems that many organizations have to face. The success of these organizations depends on the correct solution of these problems. Studies of management systems can be different both in terms of goals and methodology of their implementation.
According to the objectives of research, one can single out practical and scientific-practical. Practical research is designed to make quick effective decisions and achieve the desired results. Scientific and practical research is focused on the future, a deeper understanding of the trends and patterns of development of the organization, improving the educational level of employees.
According to the methodology of conducting, it is necessary to single out, first of all, studies of an empirical nature and based on a system of scientific knowledge.
Research is also varied in terms of the use of own or borrowed resources, in terms of labor intensity, duration, information support, and organization of their implementation. In each case, based on the goals set, it is necessary to choose the necessary type of research. Research as a type of activity in the process of managing organizations includes the following works:
Recognition of problems and problem situations;
Determining the causes of their origin, properties, content, patterns of conduct and development;
Establishing the place of these problems and situations (both in the system of scientific knowledge and in the system of practical management);
Finding ways, means and opportunities to use new knowledge about this problem;
Development of options for solving problems;
The choice of the optimal solution to the problem according to the criteria of effectiveness, optimality, efficiency.
In real practice, all these works are closely interconnected, characterizing the degree of professionalism of researchers, the specific goals and objectives of their activities.
Conducting research and analysis of any specific management system as an object is necessary, first of all, to ensure the competitiveness of the enterprise in the market of goods (services), to improve the efficiency of the functioning of departments and the organization as a whole. It is possible to understand how successfully and in a timely manner the set goals are achieved only by studying the work of these departments and specific executors and leaders.
Research needs to be carried out not only when organizations are facing bankruptcy or a serious crisis, but also when organizations are functioning successfully and consistently achieving certain results. In this case, timely research will help maintain this stable level of the organization's work, find out what hinders or stimulates its work to a greater extent so that the desired results are even better.
The need for research is also dictated by the constantly changing goals of the functioning of organizations, which is inevitable in the conditions of market competition and constantly changing consumer demand.
Research is needed from both scientific and practical points of view. From a scientific point of view, research involves the development and clear formulation of research methodology in order to develop fundamental theoretical provisions. From a practical point of view, research should be able to be carried out by specific people (analysts, designers, employees in departments), therefore, they need to be armed with specific knowledge, taught various methods of conducting research, explain what this is for and what goals are achieved. It is necessary to explain the main thing: research is carried out with the aim of building a certain (reference) model of the management system, to which the organization should strive.
Practice shows that specialists who have ordinary experience in research or business organizations do not have special knowledge for such research.
Thus, from a practical point of view, conducting research imposes certain requirements on the composition and qualifications of a team of analysts and developers.
Researchers should:
Have experience in the management of specific production facilities;
Possess knowledge of modern management methods and techniques;
Possess knowledge of operations research methods and systems analysis;
Have the ability to communicate with specialists of various levels and profiles.
In addition, researchers should be able to systematize the information received, initiate innovations in the organization.
The fulfillment of these requirements determines the need for special selection and training of researchers, since the efficiency of the enterprise depends to a large extent on the results of their activities. The training of such specialists is carried out in advance and is accompanied by an internship for researchers in the process of developing a new model of the control system.
The study of control systems includes:
Clarification of the purpose of development and functioning of the enterprise and its divisions;
Identification of enterprise development trends in a specific market environment;
Identification of factors that ensure the achievement of the formulated goal and impede it;
Collection of the necessary data for the development of measures to improve the current management system;
Obtaining the necessary data to link modern models, methods and tools to the conditions of a particular enterprise.
In the process of research and analysis of the work of the organization, the role and place of this enterprise in the relevant market sector is established; the state of production and economic activity of the enterprise; production structure of the enterprise; management system and its organizational structure; features of the interaction of the enterprise with consumers, suppliers and other market participants; innovative activity of the enterprise; psychological climate of the enterprise, etc.
1.2 Research and their role in scientific and practical human activity: object and subject of research
The life of society is connected with the continuous production of material and spiritual goods necessary to meet the needs of people. The basis of production is the labor activity of people, carried out by tools. The better the tools of labor, the more material goods can be produced and the higher the quality of products. Therefore, people are interested in the continuous improvement of tools, which is the basis of scientific and technological progress (STP). That. Scientific and technical progress is the result of people's activities for the continuous development and improvement of the productive forces and MTB of society. It manifests itself in two main forms: evolutionary and revolutionary.
The evolutionary form is a relatively long-term accumulation and introduction into practice of the production of scientific and technical knowledge. The revolutionary form is a qualitative leap in the knowledge and practical application of the laws of nature by mankind. STP is expressed in the qualitative transformation of tools and objects of labor, technology, labor organization and management, which gives impetus to the further development of the science of management.
The task of research is ultimately reduced to the search for simplicity in the complex, the search for effective means of research and management of objects. Research - the process of cognition of objective reality, patterns and relationships between phenomena. A system is an object consisting of separate elements, between which ordered relationships and connections are established. Such an object is in some medium with which it exchanges matter, energy and information. Systems (objects of research) are people, machines, animals, social groups, enterprises, etc. Each of these systems is characterized by a certain internal structure, internal structure, its own environment and ways of interacting with it. In accordance with this, the objects of study are the following systems: mechanical, biological, social, economic, production and economic, etc. Despite these qualitative differences, all these systems have a number of common properties. One of these properties is the presence of subsystems.
A subsystem is a part of the system, which, being an integral part of it, in turn, is a system. For example, a car, being a system, consists of separate parts. Obviously, each of them is a relatively independent system that performs certain functions. Many relative systems are actually subsystems in other, more complex systems. Thus, road transport can be considered as a subsystem of the transport system, which also includes rail, water, air, etc. The transport system, in turn, is a subsystem in the economic system of society, and the economic system is a subsystem of the entire society. If the transition from simple to more complex subsystems can theoretically occur indefinitely, then the reverse transition - from complex to ever simpler, has limits. If we divide the car system into subsystems, then at the end we will find such parts that it is not advisable to further divide. For example, cylinder block, cylinder head stud, etc. Such indivisible parts from the point of view of practical expediency are called elements.
Each system has its own specific set of elements. The connection of disparate elements in a certain order allows you to recreate this system. For example, assembling cars on an assembly line, from a systems theory point of view, is a re-creation of a complex system called a "car". An enterprise that produces cars is also a system, but not a technical one, but a production and economic one. These complex systems consist of four main elements. To produce cars, people, material elements (machines, equipment, raw materials, materials, energy sources, buildings, structures, etc.), finances and information are needed. Each of these elements, according to its own special laws, is combined into four major subsystems that make up any enterprise.
The control subsystem with control actions (commands, instructions, technological maps and other information) performs the organizational and economic management of the controlled subsystem (object).
The controlled subsystem (object) directly carries out the production process on the basis of administrative information coming to it from the control subsystem along the lines of issuing orders.
Information about the course of production processes, arising deviations and interference through feedback channels enters the control subsystem, where the necessary decisions are made and corrective actions are developed.
Feedback in control systems is understood as such an information connection that ensures the flow of information from the controlled subsystem to the control one. For example, feedback that allows you to control the operation of the vehicle on the line can be carried out through the commodity and transport documentation, as well as with direct control over the operation of the vehicle by the head of the column, through a system of special technical means informing the dispatcher about the operation of the vehicle on the line and other devices.
In the managed subsystem, subsystems are allocated that coincide with the divisions of the existing organizational structure, for example, accounting, planning department, etc. Each of these subsystems performs one or more management functions.
Science is a complex public, social phenomenon, a special area of application of purposeful human activity, the main task of which is to obtain, master new knowledge and create new methods and means to solve this problem. This is an integral social system that combines a constantly developing system of scientific knowledge about the objective laws of nature, society and human consciousness, aimed at the development of this system.
Scientific research, as a process of any work, includes three main components: purposeful human activity, i.e. scientific work itself, the subject of scientific work and the means of scientific work. Expedient scientific activity of a person, based on a set of specific methods of cognition, necessary to achieve new knowledge about the object of study, uses appropriate equipment (measuring, computing, etc.). those. means of labor.
The subject of scientific work is, first of all, the object of research, on the knowledge of which the activity of research is directed. The objects of study can be any subject of the material world (car, aggregates, components, etc.), a phenomenon (the process of combustion of a combustible mixture in an engine cylinder), a connection between phenomena, properties (car maneuverability, its dynamics, etc.).
Scientific research, depending on its intended purpose, the degree of connection with nature or industrial production, the depth and nature of scientific work, is divided into several main types: fundamental, applied and development.
Fundamental research is the acquisition of fundamentally new knowledge and the further development of the system of already accumulated knowledge. The purpose of fundamental research is the discovery of new laws of nature, the discovery of connections between phenomena and the creation of new theories. Basic research is associated with significant risk and uncertainty in terms of obtaining a specific positive result. Despite this, it is fundamental research that forms the basis for the development of both science itself and social production.
Applied research - the creation of new or improvement of existing means of production, consumer goods, etc. These studies are aimed at "reification" of scientific knowledge obtained in fundamental research. Applied research in the field of technology does not, as a rule, deal directly with nature; the object of study in them are machines, technology or organizational structure. Practical orientation (orientation) and a clear purpose of applied research makes the probability of obtaining the expected results from them very significant.
Development - the use of the results of applied research to create and refine experimental models of equipment (machines, devices, materials), production technology, as well as improve existing equipment. At the stage of development of results, the products of scientific research take a form that allows them to be used in other industries. The considered classification is conditional.
Between fundamental research and industrial production lies the area of interrelated stages: applied research - development - project - development. Design and development belong both to the field of science and to the field of technology. This is a scientific work, because it covers creative activity, which is based not only on already known skills, standard techniques and practical experience, but is also aimed at obtaining new, original solutions in the field of engineering, technology or production organization.
Scientific research is the process of creating connections between the phenomena of reality, regularities and connections between the phenomena of the real world. Scientific research carried out in the field of applied sciences goes through a number of stages, which constitute the structure of scientific research.
It has seven main steps:
1. Statement of the problem, which consists in finding a problem that needs to be investigated and, in an accurate, clear formulation, setting the research objectives. The statement of the problem includes important work on the collection and processing of initial information - data on technical and theoretical methods and means for solving similar problems.
2. Promotion and justification of the initial hypothesis. In the overwhelming majority of cases, the development of a working hypothesis is carried out on the basis of a clearly formulated task of research and analysis of the collected initial information. In this case, the working hypothesis may have several options, from which the most appropriate one should be selected.
3. Theoretical study. The goal is to generalize as fully as possible the observed phenomena, the connections between them, to obtain as many consequences as possible from the accepted working hypothesis. In applied research, theoretical research consists in analyzing patterns obtained in the fundamental sciences in relation to the object under study, as well as in extracting still unknown patterns with the help of mathematics.
4. Experimental study. An experiment, or a scientifically staged experience, is technically the most complex and time-consuming stage of scientific research. The purpose of the experiment depends on the nature of scientific research and the sequence of its implementation. In the "normal" development of the study, the experiment is carried out after the theoretical study, confirming or refuting its results. It also happens vice versa, the experiment precedes the theoretical study, which is typical for exploratory experiments.
5. Analysis and comparison of results. The result of comparing the results of experimental and theoretical research is the final confirmation of the hypothesis put forward and the formulation of the consequences arising from it or the need to change the hypothesis.
6. Final conclusions. At this stage, the results of the study are carried out, i.e. the obtained results and their compliance with the goal are formulated. For theoretical research, this is the final stage; for applied research, another one arises.
7. Mastering the results. This is the stage of preparation for the industrial implementation of the results obtained, the development of technological or design principles for the implementation
1.3 Control system as an object of study
In modern management, many different organizations are considered, which are a "set" of people, groups, united to achieve a goal, solve a problem based on the principles of division of labor and distribution of responsibilities. These can be state institutions, public associations, research and production associations, private enterprises.
Organizations are created to meet the diverse needs of people in products or services and therefore have a wide variety of purposes, sizes, structure and other parameters.
Such diversity is of great importance when considering the organization as an object of management. The set of goals and objectives facing organizations of different complexity classes and different industry affiliations leads to the fact that their management requires special knowledge and art, methods and techniques that ensure effective joint activities of employees of all structural divisions.
Any organization, regardless of its specific purpose, can be described using a number of parameters, among which the main ones are: the goals of the organization, its organizational structure, external and internal environment, the totality of resources, the regulatory and legal framework, the specifics of the functioning process, the system of social and economic relations and, finally, organizational culture.
Each organization has a specific management system, which is also the object of study. It is possible to study the control system only on the basis of the chosen scientific concept.
First of all, it should be noted that the concept of "system" is used as a means to study the characteristics of the control object. The value of this concept lies in the fact that it contributes to a deeper understanding of the characteristics of the system under study and the process of functioning of the organization as a system.
Any type of management activity is associated with the management of people united within the enterprise into departments, divisions, services, etc. Consequently, managerial activity is, first of all, the management of social groups of people, which should be considered as socially controlled systems. An organization of any level can be considered as a socially managed system: a ministry, a research and production association, an enterprise, workshops, holdings, and individual companies. Each of these systems is an independent object of study and has its own characteristics. The management system of any organization is a complex system designed to collect, analyze and process information in order to obtain the maximum end result under certain restrictions (availability of resources, for example).
Speaking about the management of an organization, in particular an enterprise, we use the term system. For example, a production system, a logistics system, a sales system, various supply and service systems. Why? Because we consider any object from the point of view of cybernetics and thereby try to understand its goals, what elements it consists of, how it functions, and in this sense we consider any specific object, including an enterprise, as a system.
At present, at least five types of system representations can be distinguished: microscopic, functional, macroscopic, hierarchical, and procedural.
Each of these representations of the system reflects a certain group of its characteristics. The microscopic representation of a system is based on understanding it as a set of observable and indivisible quantities (elements). In principle, there are no absolutely indivisible elements, however, in each specific case of system design, the element is assumed to be indivisible. The structure of the system fixes the location of the selected elements and their connections. The functional representation of the system is understood as a set of actions (functions) that must be performed to achieve the goals of the system functioning. The macroscopic representation characterizes the system as a whole, located in the "system environment" (environment). This means that a real system cannot exist outside the system environment (environment), and the environment is the system within which the objects of interest to us are selected. Consequently, the system can be represented by a set of external connections with the environment.
The hierarchical view is based on the concept of "subsystem" and considers the entire system as a collection of subsystems connected hierarchically.
And, finally, the process representation characterizes the state of the system in time. Consequently, the control system as an object of study has the following features: it consists of a set (at least two) of elements arranged hierarchically; elements of systems (subsystems) are interconnected through direct and feedback links; the system is a single and inseparable whole, which is an integral system for lower hierarchical levels, there are fixed connections of the system with the external environment.
Studying the control system as an object of study, it is necessary to highlight the requirements for control systems, which can be used to judge the degree of organization of systems. These requirements include:
1) determinism of the elements of the system;
2) system dynamism;
3) the presence of a control parameter in the system;
4) the presence of a control parameter in the system;
5) the presence in the system of channels (at least one) of feedback.
6) Compliance with these requirements should ensure the conditions for an effective level of functioning of the governing bodies. Let's consider these requirements in detail.
7) In management systems, determinism (the first sign of system organization) is manifested in the organization of interaction between departments of management bodies, in which the activity of one element (management, department) affects other elements of the system.
The second requirement of the control system is dynamism, i.e. the ability under the influence of external and internal perturbations to remain for some time in a certain unchanged qualitative state.
A control parameter in a control system should be understood as such its parameter (element), through which it is possible to control the activity of the entire system and its individual elements. Such a parameter (element) in a socially controlled system is the head of a subdivision of a given level. He is responsible for the activities of the subdivision subordinate to him, perceives the control signals of the organization's management, organizes their implementation, and is responsible for the implementation of all management decisions.
The next, fourth requirement imposed on control systems should be the presence of a controlling parameter in it, i.e. such an element that would constantly monitor the state of the subject of control, without exerting a control influence on it (or on any element of the system).
So, we have considered the requirements for the control system as an object of study. Based on this, we determine the following:
1. Considering a specific organization as an object of study, we must always record and compare its systemic characteristics. This allows you to better understand this organization and determine which class of complexity it belongs to.
2. In order to improve the management system using computer technology, organizational design must be brought to a level that ensures the clarity of the distribution of responsibilities of managers and performers.
3. There is a need for personal responsibility of managers and executors. When designing a control system, it is necessary to clearly fix who and what does in the control system, who is responsible for what.
4. Information elaboration of the system is required at the level of management decisions.
5. Research and design should be a continuous process. In the management system, it is necessary to provide for a department or group of employees who must constantly work out the technology for preparing new solutions due to new goals.
6. There must be clear documentation governing the activities of the organization. Often Regulations on departments, job descriptions are not specific and do not provide personal responsibility in making managerial decisions.
How can these requirements be met? As noted above, this is possible only on the basis of the general concept of studying control systems as decision-making systems, since the end product of a control system is a managerial decision.
2. System approach and system analysis in the study of control systems
2.1 Types of control systems
CS - a set of interconnected, functional elements that generate control parameters.
2 main subsystems:
subject of management (SU)
control object (OC)
1. CS programmatic or rigid - the only direct connection between the CS and the OS, through which control actions are received that are mandatory for execution.
Administrative-command control system and methods
2. Regulated CS - uses information about the response of the object to control.
Administrative and economic methods; includes people's interests
3. Self-regulating control systems.
Regulation without intervention of external forces
4. Adaptive CS - open systems; OS is subject to disturbing influence; SU - superior. All together macro environment.
2.2 Basic concepts and principles of a systematic approach to the study of control systems
Each researcher puts his own content into the "system approach". The only thing everyone agrees on is the recognition of complexity as an essential characteristic of system objects, but complexity itself is again revealed in different ways. As a result, the systems approach is interpreted so broadly and vaguely that its specificity in the meaning of the process, as a rule, is not clearly identified.
Let's consider some interpretations.
A systematic approach is this integration, synthesis, consideration of various aspects of a phenomenon, an object (A. Hall).
The system approach is an adequate means of research and development not of any objects arbitrarily called systems, but only those that are organic wholes (S. Optner).
A systematic approach is an expression of procedures for representing objects as systems and methods for their development (V. Sadovsky).
A systematic approach is ample opportunities for obtaining a wide variety of assessments and judgments and involves the search for a wide variety of options for performing a particular job with a further choice of the optimal one (D. Burchfield).
The systems approach is directly opposite to the division of a complex task into parts. On the contrary, the task deliberately expands and becomes more complicated until all significant relationships are introduced into consideration (Yu. Chernyak).
In other words, a systematic approach is such a direction in the methodology of scientific knowledge and practice, which is based on the study of any object as a complex holistic cybernetic socio-economic system.
In the most general form, a system is understood as a set of interrelated elements that form a certain integrity, a certain unity.
Consider the basic principles of a systematic approach (system analysis).
1. Integrity, which allows considering the system at the same time as a whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.
2. Hierarchical structure, i.e. the presence of a plurality (at least two) of elements located on the basis of the subordination of elements of a lower level to elements of a higher level. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any particular organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: managing and managed. One is subordinate to the other.
3. Structurization, which allows you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of the system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements, but by the properties of the structure itself.
4. Multiplicity, which allows using a variety of cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements of the system as a whole.
With a systematic approach, it is important to study the characteristics of an organization as a system, i.e. characteristics of "input", "process" and characteristics of "output".
With a systematic approach based on marketing research, the “exit” parameters are first studied, i.e. goods or services, namely what to produce, with what quality indicators, at what cost, for whom, in what time frame to sell and at what price. The answers to these questions should be clear and timely. At the “output”, as a result, there should be competitive products or services.
The login parameters are then determined, i.e. the need for resources (material, financial, labor and information) is studied, which is determined after a detailed study of the organizational and technical level of the system under consideration (the level of technology, technology, features of the organization of production, labor and management) and the parameters of the external environment (economic, geopolitical, social, environmental and etc.). And finally, it is equally important to study the parameters of the process that converts resources into finished products. At this stage, depending on the object of study, production technology or management technology is considered, as well as factors and ways to improve it.
Thus, a systematic approach allows us to comprehensively evaluate any production and economic activity and the activity of the management system at the level of specific characteristics. This will help to analyze any situation within a single system, to identify the nature of the input, process and output problems. The use of a systematic approach allows the best way to organize the decision-making process at all levels in the management system.
2.3 System analysis in the study of control systems
The system representation of the control object led to the development of a system approach and system analysis. With a systems approach, the managed object is considered as a whole. The previously dominant analytical approach often led to a break in the links between individual management functions, for example, an accountant considered the organization from the standpoint of accounting and control, a labor economist - as a system of labor interaction between people, etc. In reality, these are only individual characteristics of the production system, which is the interaction of different objects: people, machines, energy sources, information, money, etc. A systematic approach is the ability of a manager to see all these changes and take them into account when making managerial decisions.
System analysis is a technique of scientific methods and practical techniques in the preparation of managerial decisions based on a systematic approach. The task of system analysis is to prepare such a management decision that would have the greatest effect in achieving the goals of the organization.
There are methods of analysis that relate to individual management functions. System analysis is characterized by a wide application of mathematical modeling methods, including the construction of statistical models, multivariate analysis, operations research, etc.
Simultaneously with the development of the system approach and system analysis in cybernetics, another direction in the application of system representations has been developed - systems engineering.
It develops methods for the synthesis of systems based on the study of its individual subsystems and elements. The emergence of systems engineering is associated with the development of technical systems that are extremely complex in their characteristics, for which traditional methods turned out to be insufficient. It (system engineering) is also based on a systematic approach and is used both in the design development of complex technical systems and in the creation of automated control systems for various purposes.
The process of enterprise management is a continuous chain of management decisions and management actions carried out on their basis. Depending on the position of the head (manager) and his role in the production system, solutions may have a different scope and content. Management decisions are different in nature, this is due to the diversity and complexity of the problems that managers solve in management. From the totality, three main groups of decisions can be distinguished: about goals, about ways to achieve goals, and organizational. These three groups of solutions cover most of the problems that arise in the organization.
Decisions about goals determine the direction of the production system for the long term. The most important goal of the ATP is to meet the needs for road transport services. Another equally important goal of the ATP is the social development of the team. The people who make up the production team, their comprehensive and complete development is also the ultimate goal of social production. The social development of the enterprise team is one of the links in solving this problem. As the third goal of the ATP, one can name the provision of profit and profitability as the most important result of production, economic and financial activities. Society is not indifferent to the price of services provided by road transport, whether it is necessary to allocate additional funds for the maintenance of road transport enterprises, or whether this enterprise itself can contribute a certain share of income to the state budget due to the rational organization of transportation, labor and management.
The fourth goal is the protection of nature and the rational use of natural resources. The effective solution of this problem is increasing with the development of modern engineering and technology. AT is relatively among the industries that have a very adverse impact on the environment and nature. Therefore, measures aimed at reducing the volume of these impacts are relevant.
Decisions on how to achieve goals are aimed at determining the most important conditions that ensure the implementation of the goals.
Organizational decisions provide actions in the course of which the set goals are realized. They can be presented in the form of an organizational plan that provides for the order of action of various performers, their communication and interaction, forms of control and the timing of the presentation of results. Organizational decisions are reflected in the operational plans for the transportation of goods and passengers, plans for the TO-TR PS, measures to introduce new equipment and labor protection. A significant share among organizational decisions is occupied by corrective decisions aimed at eliminating deviations from the planned course of production processes. The reasons for the occurrence of such deviations can be very different. For example, a maintenance and repair plan may be derailed due to late delivery of spare parts.
When conducting a system analysis, there are, as a rule, six main stages. Consider the content of these stages in relation to the study of economic activity.
At the first stage, the object of study is presented as a system for which the goals and conditions of functioning are determined. The economic activity of an enterprise can be viewed as a system consisting of three interrelated elements: resources, production process and finished products. The input of this system is the material and material flows of resources (means and objects of labor) and the flows of labor resources, the output is the material and material flows of finished products. The production process translates the input of the system into its output, i.e. as a result of the production process, production resources, when combined, become finished products. The task, the purpose of the enterprise's work is to ensure either the maximum output at a given cost of resources, or the maximum output at their minimum consumption. A necessary prerequisite for conducting a systematic economic analysis is the development of qualitative characteristics of the enterprise's economy - a system of synthetic and analytical indicators. The selection of indicators characterizing the production activity of the enterprise is carried out at the second stage.
At the third stage of the system economic analysis, a general scheme of the system is developed, its main components, functions, relationships are established, a scheme of subsystems is developed showing the subordination of their elements. Based on the model of formation of economic factors and indicators, a general block diagram of a comprehensive economic analysis is drawn up, factors and indicators are classified, and links between them are formalized.
Economic indicators are a function not only of the technical, organizational, natural conditions of production, but also of the social conditions of life of production teams. The degree of use of production resources depends on all these conditions of production: means of labor, objects of labor and labor itself. The intensity of the use of production resources is manifested in such generalizing indicators as labor productivity, capital productivity of the fixed assets, material intensity of production.
The efficiency of the use of production resources, in turn, manifests itself in three dimensions:
1. In the volume and quality of manufactured and sold products;
2. In terms of consumption or production costs, i.e. production cost;
3. In the magnitude of the use of resources, i.e. advanced for economic activities of fixed and circulating funds.
The generalizing indicators of each block are called synthetic. For example, the volume of sold products is a synthetic indicator for block 6, the total cost of this product is for block 7. The synthetic indicator of one block, which is the output for this block, the subsystem for another block subordinate to it, will play the role of an input. In other words, through these generalizing indicators, a connection is made between the individual blocks in the system of economic analysis. Each block as a separate system is formed into a system of an analytical indicator, from which these generalizing indicators are added.
In system analysis, special attention is paid to the study of the interconnection and conditionality of its individual sections, indicators and factors of production. Knowledge of the factors of production, their interrelations, the ability to determine their impact on individual indicators of production activity make it possible to influence the level of indicators through the management of factors. Therefore, at the fourth stage of the system analysis of economic activity, all the main relationships and factors that give quantitative characteristics are determined. Example - synthetic indicators of blocks 3, 4 and 5 will be input: capital productivity; material return; the average number of employees and their labor productivity. Synthetic indicator (input) - the volume of products sold. Output is largely determined by production assets (the use of fixed assets, objects of labor, labor resources). Non-production factors (external environment, competition in the market, sales of products) affect the volume of production indirectly, through production factors. The use of production resources is affected by the organizational and technical level of production through intensive and extensive factors.
In the system of complex analysis, production factors are identified from the point of view of their influence on generalizing indicators of economic activity, but feedback must also be taken into account, i.e. the impact of these performance indicators on indicators characterizing certain aspects of the work of enterprises.
At the fifth stage, a model of the system is built based on the information obtained in the previous stages. Specific data on the operation of the enterprise are entered into it and the model parameters are obtained in numerical terms.
The final sixth stage of the analysis is working with the model. This stage includes an objective assessment of the results of economic activity, a comprehensive identification of reserves to improve production efficiency.
The main value of system analysis is that in the process of its implementation, a logical and methodological scheme is built that corresponds to the internal links of indicators of the factor manager, which makes it possible to use computers and mathematical methods.
At the beginning, a description of economic activity is given according to the system of the most important indicators, then the factors and causes that determine these indicators and reveal internal reserves are analyzed. On the basis of such an analysis, the work of teams is evaluated.
The main thing in a comprehensive analysis is consistency, linking individual sections - blocks of analysis with each other, analysis of the relationship and mutual conditionality of these sections and the output of the results of the analysis of each block to generalizing performance indicators.
The methodology for the complexity of economic analysis should contain the following components:
The scheme and sequence of the analysis;
Ways and methods of economic information analysis;
List of organizational stages of the analysis;
Methods for obtaining and processing information used for analysis.
The relationship of the main groups of indicators of economic activity largely determines the sections and sequence of a comprehensive analysis. But both the name of the sections and the sequence of work in the analysis process may not coincide with the general flowchart.
2.4 Synthesis of control systems
Synthesis is a method of scientific study of an object or a group of objects as a whole in the interconnection of all its constituent parts or its inherent features. The synthesis method is typical for the study of complex systems, after the analysis of all its constituent parts. Thus, analysis and synthesis are interrelated and complement each other.
The inductive method of research lies in the fact that from the observation of particular, isolated cases they come to general conclusions, from individual facts - to a generalization. The inductive method is the most common in the natural and applied sciences, and its essence lies in the transfer of properties and causal relationships from known facts and objects to unknown, yet unexplored ones. For example, numerous observations and experiments have shown that iron, copper, and tin expand when heated; hence the general conclusion is drawn that all metals expand when heated.
deductive method. In contrast to the inductive one, it is based on the derivation of particular provisions from general grounds (from general rules, laws, judgments). The most widely used deductive method is in the exact sciences, for example, in mathematics, theoretical mechanics, in which particular dependencies are derived from general laws or axioms. "Induction and deduction are as necessarily linked as synthesis and analysis."
Scientific abstraction. The abstraction method is used in scientific research when it is necessary to abstract from particular, sometimes insignificant aspects of the phenomenon under consideration in order to focus on its general, essential aspects and properties. Highlighting the essential, general, scientific abstraction deepens the knowledge of objective reality. “The abstraction of the matter of the law of nature ... all scientific (correct, serious, not absurd) abstractions reflect nature deeper, or rather, more fully).
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Priority principle
The principle of an integrated approach (the principle of sub-optimization)
The principle of minimum impact
Principle of comparability of results
The principle of centralization.
Following these principles - the rules for evaluating the effectiveness of the study of SU, allows the researcher (research team) even intuitively move along the right path, leading objectively to the effective solution of the problem. However, we must always remember that research activity is creativity, the manifestation of which depends not only on the organization of work and following certain rules, but also on the characteristics of the personality of the researcher, his professionalism, originality of thinking, existing incentives, imagination and human fantasy.
Determination of ways for further development and improvement of existing management systems is associated with the improvement of the process of building knowledge about management objects, the development of thinking technologies for critical analysis of management influences, a more essential understanding of management activities and criteria for its effectiveness. In a broader sense, this regularity was proved in cybernetics by W. R. Ashby as the law of correspondence of the control environment (Ashby's controller) to the diversity of the controlled object. This law establishes that the diversity (uncertainty) in the behavior of the controlled object is reduced by increasing the diversity in the control center. But the diversity of management, its adaptability to changing external and internal conditions, is achieved only through continuous research of all components of the management system and the laws of its functioning.
It should be noted that many recognized management theorists in their works did not seek to consolidate the content of the criteria for effective management activity at the conceptual and methodological level. Most of the classic studies of management were reduced to the development of more progressive options for responding to changing external factors (social, technological, economic, political). Scientists proposed principles of management, i.e. rules for building management actions that would make it possible to make the work of organizations more sustainable in terms of profitability, competitiveness, social balance. It is widely believed that management is an art, not a profession.
In modern conditions, management organically combines art, science and technology - the true professionalism of a manager. Thus, the most important direction in the research and development of management systems should be the formation of a scientific understanding of the new managerial thinking, which would be adapted to the conditions of the modern, rapidly changing world, on the one hand, take into account the results of research on managerial activity and thinking in various fields of science, use the entire arsenal of developed humanity methods, techniques and ways of effective management.
It is the creative determination, consistency and purposefulness of the researcher that are the condition for moving forward. After all, as folk wisdom says, "For a captain who does not know where to sail, there is no fair wind." The subsequent lectures will just contribute to the ability to catch and fully use the "wind" of science to solve the applied tasks of the Cause, in whatever form this Cause appears.
The multifactorial and heterogeneous character of reserves, factors, phenomena and processes of social systems management necessitates, as mentioned earlier, the use of a systematic approach methodology for their structuring.
An enterprise, firm, organization, considered from these positions, is an ordered set of various elements between which certain connections exist or can be established. An enterprise as a system has a number of specific system properties (Table 4), which must be taken into account when developing and improving the management system.
Variety of system properties of socio-economic formations
| System properties | Specificity of manifestation | Control system response |
| Probability | The enterprise is a probabilistic system. In it, the number of elements and the connections between them cannot be established in advance accurately and for a long time. | Rigid, long-term regulation of the structure of the enterprise, its parts and relationships is unacceptable. The main criterion for the action of management is to ensure the flexibility and operational adaptability of the elements of the system to new tasks, new conditions. |
| Divisibility (plurality) | The system is divisible, that is, multiple, subdivided into subsystems that are in certain relationships with each other. There are various options for separating subsystems and grouping elements depending on the content of the tasks of analysis and synthesis. | The manager does not consider the established structure of the elements of the system as unshakable and is constantly looking for ways to streamline and develop it, taking into account newly emerging tasks. |
| Sustainability | The system is relatively stable, i.e. insensitive to some extraneous perturbations. It retains for a long time the stability of the mechanism of its life activity as a whole, the external framework, inputs and outputs to the system. | The manager of any hierarchical level must have at his disposal a mechanism and apparatus for eliminating and compensating for interference in the operation of the system, monitor their updating and operational readiness to put into operation (reserve capacities, safety stocks, product sales options, etc.). |
| Hierarchy of system parts | Parts of the system are in relative subordination to each other. The hierarchical construction of the system provides increased resistance to external influences. Conditions for reasonable localization of processes, including possible conflicts between separate parts of the system. | The manager seeks to establish clear functions, targets, rules of action, the necessary resources, and for himself - clear rights, duties, areas of competence. |
| Dynamism | The ability of a system to continuously change its state, which is reflected in the constant development of its elements and the system as a whole. | The manager ensures the optimal pace and rhythm of the development of the system and its elements, taking into account objective patterns in the economy and in accordance with the environment (market conditions, crisis phenomena, the need for consensus, etc.). |
| Multicriteria | The system (enterprise) is complex, multi-purpose, and, consequently, multi-criteria. | The manager must rank the criteria for the effectiveness of the functioning of individual subsystems, giving preference to those that are directly related to the assessment of the achievement of the main goal of the system's life. |
| emergence | Systems are created as integral formations consisting of certain elements, the combination of which leads to the emergence of a new quality (ability, parameter), which is not a simple sum of the properties of the system elements. | The manager must have the ability to abstract from the particulars and synthesize the elements of the system with the expectation of obtaining a new quality of the system due to their purposeful location in space and time. |
It follows from the list of properties that in addition to dividing the system into one or another one-order parts, a multidimensional set of parts of the hierarchical and logical structure (performers, working methods, technology, information, etc.) is also possible. The selected parts of the system have different degrees of stability in space and time. Each of the components is characterized by its own behavior and state. Therefore, the newly emerging structural formation must be stable to the necessary extent, but at the same time mobile in terms of its adaptation to emerging new external and internal conditions. In this sense, the properties of the control system should be directly dependent on its parameters.
Control ancient art and modern science. Experts in the field of management agree that management is part of large political, economic, technological, social and ethical systems and is based on its own concepts, principles and methods, that is, it has a serious scientific and methodological foundation.
Any science is a collection of knowledge and a constant search for new data about nature and society in order to understand and explain the phenomena and laws of nature, of which man himself is a part. In a new complex phenomenon, science seeks to determine its basis, which is usually ingeniously simple to discover patterns hiding in apparent chaos. The main thing in the theory is not a detailed description of the object under study, but the study of its basic properties, the identification of general laws of relationships in order to provide the fundamental possibility of establishing new knowledge.
Management, in the broad sense of the term, is a continuous process of influencing the object of management (personality, team, technological process, enterprise, state) in order to achieve optimal results with the least expenditure of time and resources. Every specialist in the field of management must master the theory, practice and art of management, be able to clearly define the goals of their activities, determine the strategy and tactics necessary to achieve them.
The functions of a leader have become much more complicated in our time. Now he not only has to think about the production and economic management of his enterprise, firm, but also constantly solve long-term, strategic issues that used to be decided at the level of the head office or ministry. Without studying the market, without finding a place for their products on it, without innovative investments and a bank loan, the enterprise is doomed.
Problematic tasks appear before the manager: the introduction of new technologies, the organization of the release of new, competitive goods, not formal, but actual attention to the quality of products, the solution of a complex of social issues, the search for new methods of stimulating labor, the development of self-government and at the same time strengthening unity of command and discipline. And one more new and very important thing is risk, responsibility. Managers are forced to independently solve a number of new production problems, such as defining strategic goals and management objectives, developing detailed plans to achieve these goals, decomposing tasks into specific operations, coordinating the activities of the enterprise with other companies and firms, constantly improving the hierarchical structure, optimizing the adoption procedure. management decisions, finding the most effective management styles and improving the motivation of employees.
Principles of the study of the development of the control system
In economic theory, as in other sciences, it is customary to define methodology as a certain set of scientific principles that provides the research process with the necessary set of methods and techniques, through which the essence of the economic phenomenon or process under consideration, its driving forces and development vector are clarified.
To study the process of transformation of the administrative-legal system of regional management into a new market management system at the stage of its transitional and crisis state, a number of scientists define the following methodological principles.
The first principle is that the Russian economy as a whole and the economy of the regions are considered by them as a certain part of the world geo-economic and geopolitical space, setting its general direction and principles of development, but requiring maximum consideration of national interests and historical features of development.
The second principle is that the choice of an effective model for managing a region depends on the theoretical and practical recognition of the advantages of the "European" or "Asian" model of building an economic theory as the most appropriate for Russian realities, as well as on those organizational and legal forms that are chosen for the commercial activities of enterprises in the region and its non-profit organizations.
The third methodological principle is to recognize management as a specific type of economic activity of the functions of renewal and rejection.
Based on the proposed principles, the authors substantiate the solution of the problem. In the context of the aggravation of economic, political, religious and personal relations associated with the transition to a post-industrial society and a new vector of movement of the modern world economy, "Russia's choice of its own path of socio-economic and political development of society and regions is one of the most important historical tasks, the solution of which will determine for many years the place and role of the Russian state in the global geo-economic space.
The importance of choosing such a path of development lies in the fact that "at present, Russia's role in the global geo-economic order has not yet been determined - it is at the stage of" troubled times "and faces a historical choice. It will have to choose one of the options for a possible geostrategy. The first is acceptance of the status of a semi-peripheral country, relying only on the market for economic development ... which naturally leads to the transformation into a raw material appendage of developed countries; the second is to become a highly developed and prosperous power. The second option ... is the development of Russia along the "third way "similar to the ongoing reforms in China, and this should happen either in a radical adjustment in the course of reforms or as a result of a social explosion."
The correctness of the future choice of the path of development will be determined by the strategy of socio-economic transformations that the Russian government has outlined for the period up to 2010.
Without denying the importance of the whole range of planned activities, we note two, in our opinion, key points.
The first is the need to restructure the economy of the country and regions. And the second point is the formation of an effective management system at all levels of management. Not only will the entry of the Russian economy into the complex and contradictory world of market relations depend on the solution of these tasks, but, no less important, it will become manageable. As an analysis of the course of economic reforms in Russia shows, most of the tasks outlined since 1990 to transform the Russian economy and increase the level of its manageability have not been resolved, as a result of which the private sector has not become the locomotive of economic progress, decentralization of management has not been replaced by the action of specific market mechanisms. . Under these conditions, they are looking for ways to improve the efficiency of economic management based on the experience of the leading industrial countries of the world. The fact that the management of the economy of the country and regions is indeed the central link in a complex chain of economic processes can be judged by a number of scientific publications and journalistic materials.
The methodological basis for building a new management system should be those general theoretical principles on the basis of which the developed model will:
- firstly, to correspond to the nature and level of development of social production both in the country and in the regions;
- secondly, to reflect and most fully implement the goals of the development of a managed economic system;
- thirdly, to integrate the various economic interests of all participants in the economic process into economic behavior;
- fourthly, to express all cost categories of production in monetary forms as the final economic forms of the reproduction process;
- fifthly, to optimize the combination of factors of regional production and ensure the efficiency of their use in all phases of social reproduction;
- sixth, to ensure high motivation of employees and their orientation towards highly efficient work.
As you can see, the current system of Russian management of the economy and its structural subdivisions is based on far from all of the listed theoretical principles and therefore needs some analysis.
In connection with the search for new theoretical approaches to the study of economic management problems, an increasing number of foreign and Russian scientists are paying attention to the experience of those countries that have provided a more effective mechanism for managing the national economy than Europe and the United States. Naturally, their attention is drawn to Japan and China, where, since the middle of the 20th century, a new methodology of economic science, different from the European one, began to take shape.
In recent years, a number of scientific papers have appeared on various problems of control theory, in which the authors reveal the essence of the concept of "control" and its relationship with the controlled system in different ways.
So, L. N. Suvorov and A. N. Averin believe that "management as an objectively existing process arises only at the stage of social self-movement of matter, that is, with the advent of man and society," and that it is "actions that ensure ordering and controlling the activities of people and their communities within the framework of a particular social system.
There are two important methodological points to note in this definition.
The first Management is associated only with human activity and therefore has a social character.
Second- the content side of management is the ordering and control exercised by people in relation to a particular social or regional system.
A slightly different definition of management is given by V. D. Grazhdan, according to whom "management includes not only a change in the order, what is, but also the" design "of new parts and properties in the process of development, as well as the focus on eliminating the old, obsolete."
The content of modern management (management) was successfully noticed by Yu. V. Kuznetsov and V. I. Podlesnykh, according to whom "unlike all previous methods of managing collective actions, constant updating is built into management. Historical periodization of management confirms and shows the dependence of its development from external conditions and, above all, from the historical stage of the development of society.
Thus, management is a management system that, with its functions, is designed to reproduce a managed organization on an expanded basis, providing it with qualitative changes specified from the outside.
Management as a system
Each object of management (state, industry, enterprise, team, individual) is characterized by significant features, differences, but scientific methods of management have in their arsenal general principles and methods of influencing any managed object. The theory, practice and art of management are used by the manager to achieve the goal of his activity and allow him to develop a strategy, a set of tools and methods for solving the set tasks with personal responsibility for the management decisions made. Determination of goals, management strategies and implementation of the decisions made with the help of the production team constitute the main set of functional duties of the manager.
Each of the managed objects is a system consisting of separate, but interconnected parts, elements. Moreover, the system acquires new properties that its constituent elements do not possess.
Management provides a continuous and purposeful impact on the controlled object, which can be a technological installation, a team or an individual. Management is a process, and the management system is a mechanism that ensures this process. Any dynamic process in which people can also participate consists of separate procedures, operations and interrelated stages. Their sequence and interrelation constitute the technology of the managerial (in our case) process. Strictly speaking, management technology consists of information, computational, organizational and logical operations performed by managers and specialists of various profiles according to a certain algorithm manually or using technical means. Management technology is the methods, order, regulations for the implementation of the management process.
The science of management allows you to systematize, analyze the management process, and develop recommendations for its optimization. Fundamentally, the control process is characterized by two main components: the control system and the control object. These components can be a leader and a subordinate, a dispatcher and factory floors, a human brain and organs controlled by it through the nervous system. The main feature of the management process is the unity and interconnectedness of its components, which is provided by feedback. In this case, the control is carried out in a closed loop.
Information about the state of the controlled object is sent via the feedback channel to the comparison body (OS) of the system, which can make the necessary adjustments to the control process.
There are technical systems (energy systems, oil and gas pipelines, information and computer network, technological process, etc.), socio-economic systems (individual enterprises, industries, transport systems, services and trade, etc.) and separately distinguish especially complex systems - organizational, the main element of which is a person - the element itself is complex, active and far from always predictable.
To optimize and especially automate management, it is necessary to develop formalized models, but it is very difficult, and sometimes simply impossible, to create a model of an organizational system. However, in organizational systems, it is the person who makes the management decisions.
For the purposeful management of an object, the manager must have information about its condition with the help of instruments or through performers. This information is received by the manager via a feedback channel, compared with the required mode of operation, and, if necessary, control signals are sent to the controlled object. The object of control can be not only a technical device, a production line, but also such highly complex controlled systems as a team, family, individual. In this case, the control of the system is often very difficult, requiring a lot of experience, knowledge and skill, since its reactions to control commands are often inadequate.
In automatic control systems, the technological process is carried out without the direct participation of a person. In these cases, the role of a person is transferred to the regulator, which, based on the information received, makes an appropriate decision.
Management organization
Organization is a providing management function aimed at creating the necessary conditions for achieving goals. The main tasks of the organization: the formation of the structure of the organization and the provision of its activities with finances, equipment, raw materials, materials and labor resources. When changing environmental conditions, it is often necessary to rebuild the organizational structure in order to improve its compliance with the needs of flexible production, simplify it, or, conversely, introduce new structural elements. The main indicator of a high management organization is its quick response to changes in the external environment, its particular sensitivity to the achievements of scientific and technological progress, to market conditions.
The term "organization" (from Latin organize - I give a slim look, I arrange) has a double meaning. The organization as a management function ensures the ordering of the technical, economic, socio-psychological and legal aspects of the activity of the managed system at all its hierarchical levels. At the same time, another meaning of this word is a kind of association, a team whose efforts are aimed at achieving specific goals common to all members of this team. But any organization must have such important resources as capital, information, materials, equipment and technology. Equally important for the successful operation of the organization is the presence of stable ties between members of the team, common to all rules and a culture of behavior. The success of the functioning of an organization depends on complex, variable environmental factors: economic conditions, applied equipment and technology, competing organizations, communication with consumers, the current marketing system, government and legal acts, etc.
The managerial activity of a person largely depends on organizational principles, the wisest order will only be a fiction, if its execution is not organized, its goal is not clear to the performer and it is not supported by motivation.
The task of organizing management at any level can be defined as ensuring the transition from the existing state to the desired one. If in the n-dimensional space we designate any desired economic or other indicators and their values by vectors (a 1, a 2, ... a n), then the task of organizing management is to determine the ways that can be translated at the lowest cost and into the minimum terms of the indicators actually available (b 1 , b 2 ,... b n) to the planned state. The theoretical foundation of scientific issues of organization and management of production are the methods of cybernetics, systems theory, systems engineering, praxeology and bionics. Very fruitful from a theoretical and practical point of view was the proposal of well-known American specialists in the field of management T. Peters and R. Waterman to consider an organization as a unity of seven basic variables: structures (structure), strategies (strategy), systems and management procedures (systems), joint , i.e. shared by all, value attitudes (shared values), the totality of acquired skills, skills (skills), management style (style) and composition of employees, i.e. personnel system (staff).
On fig. Figure 5 shows the well-known 7-C, ("happy atom"), which allows you to visualize the main components and problems of the organization.
Choice of organizational structure of management
Structure (lat. structura - structure) - a form of organization of the system, the unity of stable relationships between the elements that make up the system.
Any complex system is built on a hierarchical, multi-level principle. The control level is determined by the elements of the system that are equally remote from the upper structural link and have similar rights. To implement the management functions of the system, a special apparatus is created, the structure of which is determined by its constituent links and the number of hierarchical levels of management. The management structure should ensure the unity of stable links between its components and the reliable functioning of the system as a whole. This provision applies to the activities of any production team, any society, including family relations.
Rice. 5. Scheme 7-C "Happy atom".
Reasonably created structure of the control system largely determines its effectiveness, as it ensures the stability of the links between the many components of the control object and ensures the integrity of the system. It connects the individual elements of the system into a single whole, significantly affects the forms and organization of planning, operational management, methods of organizing work and their coordination, makes it possible to measure and compare the performance of each link in the system.
In complex systems, the whole is greater than the sum of their constituent elements, the properties and capabilities of the whole exceed the properties and capabilities of their parts (the well-known law of synergy from the Greek synergos - joint, coordinated, which was introduced into scientific use by I. Ansoff). That is, the properties of the system differ from the algebraic sum of the properties that make up the system of elements. Features of the synergistic effect are described by an amazing formula: 2+2=5 . When this seemingly strange abstraction is transferred to the real world of production activity, the total income from the activities of a large enterprise turns out to be higher than the sum of the return indicators for each of its branches (especially if resources common to all departments of the enterprise are used and complementarity is ensured). Here it is worth noting that if the main parameters of the elements and even the order of their interaction are known, then it is impossible to draw conclusions about the properties of the system as a whole.
The practical value of studying the synergistic effect lies primarily in the use of the unique properties of large systems - self-organization and the ability to determine a very limited number of parameters that can be controlled by the system (order parameters).
There are many types of management structures: patriarchal, linear, functional, staff, matrix, there are even divisional and product structures.
In modern Russia, the structure of the economy and its management system have a pronounced three-tier character: public administration - corporations and branch joint-stock companies - medium and small enterprises. Corporations are forced to create powerful management structures for long-term analysis and planning, development of research programs and scientific and technological developments, patent and licensing activities, collection and processing of a wide variety of information, and organization of marketing and sales research. Especially deep studies of the optimality of management decisions are carried out by transnational companies that create subsidiaries in other countries.
The problem of choosing the type of enterprise management structure has become very relevant for enterprises and firms in modern Russia. The vast majority of failures in production management are primarily due to the imperfection of the organizational structure of management. At the dawn of modern Russian entrepreneurship, this question was of little interest to anyone, since the new firms created were, as a rule, with a small number of employees and were easy to manage. Naturally, at that time the most common were "flat" structures, when the manager worked directly with subordinates, without intermediaries. But, as Mikhail Kuznetsov, financial director of the Party company, quickly became convinced and then repeatedly spoke about this, with an increase in the number of personnel, sole management becomes impossible and it becomes necessary to put vertical structures into action. The simplest two-level "flat" vertical structure, as the most flexible, adequately responding to changes in the situation, remains very common among Russian production management structures to this day. In such systems, information is less susceptible to distortion, since information channels are shorter and its transformation during the transition from one level of control to another is minimal.
Further development of the enterprise requires the adoption of new structural decisions, a transition is being made from a functional structure, for example, to a divisional one, which is an amalgamation of several functional structures (from English division - division). Enterprises with a divisional management structure make strategic decisions at the corporate level (financial management, marketing, capital investments, etc.), but their functional, or subsidiaries, divisions have sufficient independence, carry out their planning, marketing activities, personnel policy. But at the same time, the number of managerial personnel inevitably grows, most often up to 25-30% of the number of employees, and, accordingly, the costs of maintaining it grow. The goals and objectives of the "top" of the multilevel hierarchy and the subdivisions do not always coincide.
The divisional structure of management is successfully used in those organizations that operate in various business areas (diversification of activities) and cover vast geographical regions. With a high level of diversification, large corporations use one of the varieties of the divisional structure - the product structure, where management is carried out according to the main range of products. With this structure, management functions are transferred to a manager who is entirely responsible for the production and marketing of a certain type of product, a small product-specific firm is formed within a large corporation.
In international companies, a matrix management system has become widespread, combining the advantages of large companies with a developed functional structure and small firms with their operational, mobile management structures. Under the matrix system, an enterprise has dual subordination - according to a functional and territorial sign: with significant operational independence.
More professional, but difficult to implement, is the method of organizational economic and mathematical modeling. It is based on the development of algorithms for the main functions of the enterprise under the conditions of the criteria for optimal control and the existing system of restrictions. This method makes extensive use of mathematical formalization methods, which makes it easy to switch to computer programming and analysis of organizational structure options using computer technology.
A three-level management structure has been preferred in Russia. This is how the vast majority of small and medium enterprises operate.
An analysis of the activities of leading companies and firms in modern Russia shows that their organizational structures are in constant dialectical development.
In recent years, another form of the organizational structure of production management has become widespread in Russia - industrial holdings. It is more convenient for enterprises, usually in the same industry, to control joint activities and solve issues of general strategic planning, while maintaining their economic and legal independence. Holdings do not deal with the problems of production activities, but on their own behalf they can conclude commercial agreements and contracts, which is especially beneficial when entering international markets. The most common method of setting up a holding company is to own controlling stakes or other securities in industrial firms. The holder of the controlling stake has the ability to control the course of production and marketing of products of the enterprises included in the holding.
A reasonable choice of the type of organizational structures depends on a balanced analysis of many factors: the possibility of using computer technology to analyze structures, the development strategy of an enterprise for the period under study, the amount of work performed, and, finally, the production experience of managerial personnel. The simplest and most commonly used method for choosing an organizational structure is to study the structures of successfully developing related enterprises. Another method - the development of a new structure is carried out on the basis of the recommendations of professional consultants and experts. The methods of structuring goals and organizational modeling are less commonly used.
Any, even the most perfect management structure is doomed to change and further improvement. The sooner the governing bodies determine the need for these changes, the more effective the management process will be, the less the threat of stagnation and regression of the system will be. The reason for the inevitability of new organizational relations and the corresponding management structures lies in the constant development and redistribution of functions between the elements of the management system, obsolescence of the structure and in such a powerful catalyst for social, economic and managerial changes as scientific and technological progress (replacement of equipment, development of new products and technologies ).
The optimal organizational structure, corresponding to dynamic changes in the external environment, is able to solve the following tasks: coordination of the work of all functional services of the enterprise, a clear definition of the rights and obligations, powers and responsibilities of all participants in the management process. Timely adjustment of the structure helps to increase the efficiency of the enterprise, and a reasonable choice of organizational structure largely determines the management style and quality of labor processes.
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