His name alone brings to mind the image of a tough, burly, gray-haired chancellor with a military bearing and a steely gleam in his eyes. However, Bismarck was sometimes quite different from this image. He was often overwhelmed by the passions and experiences characteristic of ordinary people. We offer several episodes from his life in which Bismarck's character is revealed in the best possible way.
Gymnasium student
"The strong one is always right"
Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen was born on April 1, 1815 in the family of a Prussian landowner. When little Otto was 6 years old, his mother sent him to Berlin to the Plaman school, where the children of aristocratic families were brought up.
At the age of 17, Bismarck entered the University of Gottingham. Tall, red-haired Otto does not go into his pocket for a word and, in the heat of disputes with his opponents, fiercely defends monarchist views, although at that time liberal views were in vogue among young people. As a result, a month after admission, his first duel happens, in which Bismarck earned his scar on his cheek. After 30 years, Bismarck will not forget this incident and will say that the enemy then acted dishonestly, hitting surreptitiously.
Over the next 9 months, Otto has another 24 duels, of which he invariably emerges victorious, gaining the respect of fellow students and receiving 18 days in a guardhouse for a malicious violation of the rules of decency (including public drunkenness).
Official
“I was destined by naturebecome a diplomat: I was born on April 1"
Surprisingly, Bismarck did not even consider the option of a military career, although his older brother went that route. Having chosen the position of an official in the Berlin Court of Appeal, he quickly hated writing endless protocols and asked for a transfer to an administrative position. And for this, he brilliantly passed the rigorous examination.
However, having fallen in love with the daughter of an English parish priest, Isabella Lorraine-Smith, he becomes engaged to her and simply stops coming to the service. Then he declares: “My pride requires me to command, and not to fulfill other people's orders!”. In the end, he decides to return to the family estate.
Mad landowner
"Stupidity is a gift from God,but should not be abused
AT early years Bismarck did not think about politics and indulged in all sorts of vices on his estate. He drank without measure, reveled, lost significant sums in cards, changed ladies and did not disregard peasant daughters. A bully and a rake, Bismarck brought his neighbors to a white heat with wild antics. He woke up his friends by shooting at the ceiling so that the plaster fell on them. Rushed through foreign lands on his huge horse. Fired at targets. In the area where he lived, there was a saying; “No, not enough yet, says Bismarck!”, And the future Reich Chancellor himself was called there only as “wild Bismarck.” The bubbling energy required a larger scale than the life of a landowner. The turbulent revolutionary moods of Germany in 1848-1849 played into his hands. Bismarck joined the Conservative Party that was being formed in Prussia, launching his dizzying political career.
The beginning of the way
"Politics is the art of adaptingcircumstances and benefit
from everything, even from what disgusts"
Already in his first public speech in May 1847 in the United Diet, where he was present as a reserve deputy, Bismarck, without ceremony, crushed the opposition with his speech. And when her indignant roar of voices filled the hall, he calmly said: “I don’t see arguments in inarticulate sounds.”
Later, this demeanor, far from the laws of diplomacy, will manifest itself more than once. So, for example, Count Gyula Andrássy, the Austrian-Hungarian Foreign Minister, recalling the course of negotiations on an alliance with Germany, said that when he resisted Bismarck's demands, he was ready to strangle him in the truest sense of the word. And in June 1862, while in London, Bismarck met with Disraeli and during the conversation outlined to him his plans for a future war with Austria. Later, Disraeli would say to one of his friends about Bismarck: “Beware of him. He says what he thinks!
But this was only partly true. Bismarck could throw thunder and lightning if it was necessary to intimidate someone, but he could also be emphatically courteous if this promised a favorable outcome for him.
War
“Never lie so much as during the war,after the hunt and before the election"
Bismarck was a supporter of forceful methods of resolving political issues. He did not see any other way for the unification of Germany, except for the one paved with "iron and blood." However, even here everything was ambiguous.
When Prussia had won a crushing victory over Austria, Emperor Wilhelm wished to solemnly enter Vienna with the Prussian army, which would certainly entail the sack of the city and the humiliation of the Duke of Austria. For Wilhelm, a horse had already been served. But Bismarck, who was the inspirer and strategist of this war, suddenly began to dissuade him and made a real hysteria. Falling at the emperor's feet, he grabbed his boots with his hands and did not let him out of the tent until he agreed to abandon his plans.
Bismarck provoked the war between Prussia and France by falsifying the "Ems dispatch" (a telegram sent through him by Wilhelm I to Napoleon III). He corrected it so that the content became offensive to the French emperor. A little later, Bismarck published this "secret document" in the central German newspapers. France reacted appropriately and declared war. The war took place, and Prussia won, annexing Alsace and Lorraine and receiving an indemnity of 5 billion francs.
Bismarck and Russia
"Never plot anything against Russia,for any of your tricks she will answer
its unpredictable stupidity"
From 1857 to 1861 Bismarck was Prussian ambassador to Russia. And, judging by the stories and statements that have come down to our time, he managed not only to learn the language, but also to understand (as far as it is possible at all) the mysterious Russian soul.
For example, before the start of the Berlin Congress of 1878, he said: "Never trust Russians, for Russians do not even trust themselves."
The famous “Russians harness for a long time, but they go fast” also belongs to Bismarck. An incident that happened to the future Reich Chancellor on the way to St. Petersburg is connected with the fast driving of the Russians. Having hired a cab, von Bismarck doubted whether the skinny and half-dead nags could drive fast enough, which he asked the cab.
Nothing, oh ..., - he drawled, dispersing the horses along the bumpy road so quickly that Bismarck could not resist the next question.
- You won't kick me out?
“Nothing, oh ...” the driver assured, and soon the sleigh overturned.
Bismarck fell into the snow, leaving his face covered in blood. He had already swung at the cabman who had run up to him with a steel cane, but he did not hit him, hearing him soothingly say, wiping the blood from the face of the Prussian ambassador with snow:
- Nothing, oh... nothing...
In St. Petersburg, Bismarck ordered a ring from this cane and ordered that one word be engraved on it - "Nothing." Later, he said, hearing a reproach for an excessively soft attitude towards Russia: “In Germany, only I say“ Nothing! ”, And in Russia, the whole people.”
Russian words periodically slip through his letters. And even as the head of the Prussian government, he sometimes continues to leave resolutions in official documents in Russian “Forbidden”, “Caution”, “Impossible”.
Bismarck was connected with Russia not only by work and politics, but also by a sudden outbreak of love. In 1862, at the resort of Biarritz, he met the 22-year-old Russian princess Katerina Orlova-Trubetskaya. A stormy romance ensued. The husband of the princess, Prince Nikolai Orlov, who recently returned from Crimean War seriously wounded, rarely accompanied his wife in her bathing and forest walks, which the 47-year-old Prussian diplomat took advantage of. He considered it his duty to even tell his wife about this meeting in letters. And he did it in enthusiastic tones: "This is a woman for whom you could experience passion."
The novel could end sadly. Bismarck and his beloved almost drowned in the sea. They were rescued by the lighthouse keeper. And Bismarck took the incident as an unkind sign and soon left Biarritz. But until the end of his life, the "Iron Chancellor" carefully kept Katerina's farewell gift - an olive branch - in a cigar box.
Place in history
“Life has taught me a lot to forgive.But even more - to seek forgiveness "
Dismissed by the young emperor, Bismarck continued to take part in political life united Germany. He wrote a three-volume book, Thoughts and Memories. The death of his wife in 1894 knocked him down. The health of the former Reich Chancellor began to deteriorate sharply, and on July 30, 1898, he died at the age of 84.
Almost every major city in Germany has a monument to Bismarck, but the attitude of his descendants towards him varies from admiration to hatred. Even in German history textbooks, the assessment (formulation, interpretation) of the role of Bismarck and his political activity. On one side of the scale - the unification of Germany and the creation of the Second Reich, and on the other - three wars, hundreds of thousands of dead and hundreds of thousands of cripples returning from the battlefields. The situation is aggravated by the fact that Bismarck's example turned out to be contagious, and sometimes the path to the seizure of new territories, paved with "iron and blood", is seen by politicians as most effective and more glorious than all these boring negotiations, signing documents and diplomatic meetings.
For example, Adolf Hitler might have remained an artist if he had not been inspired by the heroic past of Germany and directly by Reich Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, whose political genius he admired. Unfortunately, some of Bismarck's words are forgotten by his followers:
"Even a victorious war is an evil that must be averted by the wisdom of the nations"Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen (German Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen; 1815 (1898) - German statesman, prince, the first chancellor of the German Empire (Second Reich), nicknamed the "Iron Chancellor".
Otto von Bismarck was born on April 1, 1815 into a family of small estate nobles in Schönhausen, in the Brandenburg province (now Saxony-Anhalt). All generations of the Bismarck family served the rulers of Brandenburg in the peaceful and military fields, but did not show themselves in anything special. Simply put, the Bismarcks were Junkers, the descendants of the conquering knights who founded settlements in the lands east of the Elbe. The Bismarcks could not boast of extensive landholdings, wealth or aristocratic luxury, but were considered noble.
From 1822 to 1827, Otto studied at the Plament school, which emphasized physical development. But young Otto was not happy with this, which he often wrote to his parents about. At the age of twelve, Otto left the Plaman school, but did not leave Berlin, continuing his studies at the Friedrich the Great gymnasium on Friedrichstrasse, and when he was fifteen, he moved to the Gray Monastery gymnasium. Otto showed himself to be an average, not outstanding student. But he learned French well and German languages, taking a great interest in reading of foreign literature. Main Interests young man lay in the field of politics of the past years, the history of military and peaceful rivalry between different countries. At that time, the young man, unlike his mother, was far from religion.
After graduating from high school, his mother assigned Otto to the Georg August University in Göttingen, which was located in the Kingdom of Hanover. It was assumed that there the young Bismarck would study law and, in the future, enter the diplomatic service. However, Bismarck was not in the mood for serious study and preferred entertainment with friends, of which there were many in Göttingen. Otto often took part in duels, in one of which he was wounded for the first and only time in his life - he had a scar on his cheek from a wound. In general, Otto von Bismarck at that time was not much different from the "golden" German youth.
Bismarck did not complete his education in Göttingen - life on a grand scale turned out to be burdensome for his pocket, and, under the threat of arrest by the university authorities, he left the city. For a whole year he was enrolled at the New Capital University of Berlin, where he defended his dissertation in philosophy and political economy. This was the end of his university education. Naturally, Bismarck immediately decided to start a career in the diplomatic field, which his mother had high hopes for. But the then foreign minister of Prussia refused the young Bismarck, advising him to "look for a place in some administrative institution within Germany, and not in the sphere of European diplomacy." It is possible that the minister's decision was influenced by rumors about Otto's turbulent student life and his passion for sorting things out through a duel.
As a result, Bismarck went to work in Aachen, which had recently become part of Prussia. The influence of France was still felt in this resort town, and Bismarck was mainly concerned with the problems connected with the accession of this frontier territory to the Prussian-dominated customs union. But the work, in the words of Bismarck himself, "was not burdensome" and he had plenty of time to read and enjoy life. In the same period, he had many love affairs with visitors to the resort. Once he even almost married the daughter of an English parish priest, Isabella Lorraine-Smith.
Having fallen out of favor in Aachen, Bismarck was forced to enter military service - in the spring of 1838 he enrolled in the guards battalion of huntsmen. However, his mother's illness shortened his term of service: many years of caring for children and the estate undermined her health. The death of his mother put an end to Bismarck's throwing in search of a business - it became quite clear that he would have to manage his Pomeranian estates.
Having settled in Pomerania, Otto von Bismarck began to think about ways to increase the profitability of his estates and soon won the respect of his neighbors both with theoretical knowledge and practical success. Life on the estate disciplined Bismarck greatly, especially when compared with his student years. He proved to be a quick-witted and practical landowner. But still, student habits made themselves felt, and soon the surrounding junkers called him "mad."
Bismarck became very close to his younger sister Malvina, who finished her studies in Berlin. A spiritual closeness arose between brother and sister, caused by similarities in tastes and sympathies. Otto introduced Malvina to his friend Arnim, and a year later they got married.
Bismarck never again ceased to consider himself a believer in God and a follower of Martin Luther. Every morning he began by reading passages from the Bible. Otto decided to get engaged to Maria's friend Johanna von Puttkamer, which he achieved without any problems.
Around this time, Bismarck had his first opportunity to enter politics as a deputy to the newly formed United Landtag of the Prussian Kingdom. He decided not to lose this chance and on May 11, 1847, he took his deputy seat, temporarily postponing his own wedding. It was the time of the sharpest confrontation between liberals and conservative pro-royal forces: the liberals demanded a Constitution and greater civil liberties from Friedrich Wilhelm IV, but the king was in no hurry to grant them; he needed money to build a railway from Berlin to East Prussia. It was for this purpose that he convened in April 1847 the United Diet, consisting of eight provincial Diet.
After his first speech in the Landtag, Bismarck gained notoriety. In his speech, he tried to refute the liberal deputy's assertion about the constitutional nature of the 1813 war of liberation. As a result, thanks to the press, the "mad" junker from Kniphof turned into a "mad" deputy of the Berlin Landtag. A month later, Otto earned himself the nickname "Fincke's pursuer" because of his constant attacks on the idol and mouthpiece of the liberals Georg von Fincke. Revolutionary moods gradually matured in the country; especially among the urban lower classes, dissatisfied with rising food prices. Under these conditions, Otto von Bismarck and Johanna von Puttkamer finally got married.
1848 brought a whole wave of revolutions - in France, Italy, Austria. In Prussia, the revolution also broke out under the pressure of patriotic liberals who demanded the unification of Germany and the creation of a Constitution. The king was forced to accept the demands. Bismarck was at first afraid of the revolution and was even going to help lead the army to Berlin, but soon his ardor cooled down, and only despondency and disappointment remained in the monarch, who made concessions.
Due to his reputation as an incorrigible conservative, Bismarck had no chance of getting into the new Prussian National Assembly, elected by popular vote of the male part of the population. Otto was afraid for the traditional rights of the junkers, but soon calmed down and admitted that the revolution was less radical than it seemed. He had no choice but to return to his estates and write for the new conservative newspaper, the Kreuzeitung. At this time, there was a gradual strengthening of the so-called "camarilla" - a block of conservative politicians, which included Otto von Bismarck.
The logical outcome of the strengthening of the camarilla was the counter-revolutionary coup of 1848, when the king interrupted the parliament session and sent troops to Berlin. Despite all the merits of Bismarck in preparing this coup, the king refused him a ministerial post, branding him an "inveterate reactionary." The king was not at all in the mood to untie the hands of the reactionaries: soon after the coup, he published the Constitution, which combined the principle of monarchy with the creation of a bicameral parliament. The monarch also reserved the right to absolute veto and the right to rule by emergency decrees. This Constitution did not live up to the aspirations of the liberals, but Bismarck still seemed too progressive.
But he was forced to put up with it and decided to try to move to the lower house of parliament. With great difficulty, Bismarck managed to get through both rounds of elections. He took his place as a deputy on February 26, 1849. However, Bismarck's negative attitude towards German unification and the Frankfurt Parliament hit his reputation hard. After the dissolution of parliament by the king, Bismarck practically lost his chances of being re-elected. But this time he was lucky, because the king changed the electoral system, which saved Bismarck from having to conduct an election campaign. On August 7, Otto von Bismarck again took his deputy seat.
A little time passed, and a serious conflict arose between Austria and Prussia, which could develop into a full-scale war. Both states considered themselves leaders of the German world and tried to draw small German principalities into the orbit of their influence. This time, Erfurt became the stumbling block, and Prussia had to give in, concluding the Olmütz Agreement. Bismarck actively supported this agreement, as he believed that Prussia could not win this war. After some hesitation, the king appointed Bismarck as Prussian representative to the Frankfurt Federal Diet. Bismarck did not yet have the diplomatic qualities necessary for this post, but he had a natural mind and political insight. Soon Bismarck met the most famous political figure in Austria, Clement Metternich.
During the Crimean War, Bismarck resisted Austrian attempts to mobilize German armies for war with Russia. He became an ardent supporter of the German Confederation and an opponent of Austrian domination. As a result, Bismarck became the main supporter of an alliance with Russia and France (still quite recently at war with each other), directed against Austria. First of all, it was necessary to establish contact with France, for which Bismarck left for Paris on April 4, 1857, where he met with Emperor Napoleon III, who did not make much impression on him. But due to the illness of the king and a sharp turn in the foreign policy of Prussia, Bismarck's plans were not destined to come true, and he was sent as an ambassador to Russia. In January 1861, King Frederick William IV died and the former regent Wilhelm I took his place, after which Bismarck was transferred as ambassador to Paris.
But he did not stay long in Paris. In Berlin, at that time, another crisis broke out between the king and parliament. And in order to resolve it, despite the resistance of the empress and the crown prince, Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck head of government, transferring to him the posts of minister-president and minister of foreign affairs. The long era of Bismarck Chancellor began. Otto formed his cabinet from conservative ministers, among whom there were practically no bright personalities, except for Roon, who headed the military department. After the approval of the cabinet, Bismarck delivered a speech in the lower house of the Landtag, where he uttered the famous phrase about "blood and iron." Bismarck was sure that it was a good time for Prussia and Austria to compete for German lands.
In 1863, conflict broke out between Prussia and Denmark over the status of Schleswig and Holstein, which were the southern part of Denmark but were dominated by ethnic Germans. The conflict had been smoldering for a long time, but in 1863 it escalated with renewed vigor under pressure from nationalists on both sides. As a result, at the beginning of 1864, Prussian troops occupied Schleswig-Holstein and soon these duchies were divided between Prussia and Austria. However, this was not the end of the conflict, the crisis in relations between Austria and Prussia constantly smoldered, but did not fade away.
In 1866, it became clear that war could not be avoided, and both sides began to mobilize their military forces. Prussia was in close alliance with Italy, which put pressure on Austria from the southwest and sought to occupy Venice. The Prussian armies quickly occupied most of the northern German lands and were ready for the main campaign against Austria. The Austrians suffered one defeat after another and were forced to accept a peace treaty imposed by Prussia. Hesse, Nassau, Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein and Frankfurt went to her.
The war with Austria greatly exhausted the chancellor and undermined his health. Bismarck took a vacation. But he did not have long to rest. From the beginning of 1867, Bismarck worked hard to create the Constitution of the North German Confederation. After some concessions to the Landtag, the Constitution was adopted and the North German Confederation was born. Bismarck became Chancellor two weeks later. This strengthening of Prussia greatly agitated the rulers of France and Russia. And, if relations with Alexander II remained quite warm, then the French were very negative towards the Germans. Passions were fueled by the Spanish succession crisis. One of the contenders for the Spanish throne was Leopold, who belonged to the Brandenburg dynasty of Hohenzollern, and France could not admit him to the important Spanish throne. Patriotic sentiments began to rule in both countries. The war was not long in coming.
The war was devastating for the French, especially the crushing defeat at Sedan, which they remember to this day. Soon the French were ready to capitulate. Bismarck demanded from France the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which was completely unacceptable for both Emperor Napoleon III and the republicans who founded the Third Republic. The Germans managed to take Paris, and the resistance of the French gradually faded away. German troops marched triumphantly through the streets of Paris. During the Franco-Prussian War, patriotic sentiments intensified in all German lands, which allowed Bismarck to further rally the North German Alliance by announcing the creation of the Second Reich, and Wilhelm I took the title of Emperor (Kaiser) of Germany. Bismarck himself, in the wake of universal popularity, received the title of prince and the new estate of Friedrichsruhe.
In the Reichstag, meanwhile, a powerful opposition coalition was being formed, the core of which was the newly created centrist Catholic party, united with parties representing national minorities. In order to resist the clericalism of the Catholic Center, Bismarck went to rapprochement with the National Liberals, who had the largest share in the Reichstag. The "Kulturkampf" began - Bismarck's struggle with the Catholic Church and Catholic parties. This struggle had a negative effect on the unity of Germany, but it became a matter of principle for Bismarck.
In 1872, Bismarck and Gorchakov organized a meeting in Berlin of three emperors - German, Austrian and Russian. They came to an agreement to jointly confront the revolutionary danger. After that, Bismarck had a conflict with the German ambassador to France, Arnim, who, like Bismarck, belonged to the conservative wing, which alienated the chancellor from the conservative junkers. The result of this confrontation was the arrest of Arnim under the pretext of improper handling of documents. The long struggle with Arnim and the implacable resistance of the center party of Windhorst could not but affect the health and character of the chancellor.
In 1879, Franco-German relations deteriorated and Russia demanded in an ultimatum from Germany not to start a new war. This testified to the loss of mutual understanding with Russia. Bismarck found himself in a very difficult international situation that threatened isolation. He even resigned, but the Kaiser refused to accept it and sent the chancellor on an indefinite leave that lasted five months.
In addition to the external danger, the internal danger, namely the socialist movement in the industrial regions, became ever stronger. To combat it, Bismarck tried to enact new repressive legislation, but it was rejected by the centrists and liberal progressives. Bismarck increasingly spoke of the "red threat", especially after the assassination attempt on the emperor. At this difficult time for Germany, the Berlin Congress of the leading powers opened in Berlin to consider the results of Russian-Turkish war. The Congress turned out to be surprisingly effective, although Bismarck had to constantly maneuver between representatives of all the great powers to do this.
Immediately after the end of the congress, elections to the Reichstag (1879) were held in Germany, in which conservatives and centrists received a confident majority at the expense of liberals and socialists. This allowed Bismarck to push a bill against the Socialists through the Reichstag. Another outcome of the new alignment of forces in the Reichstag was the opportunity to introduce protectionist economic reforms to overcome the economic crisis that began in 1873. With these reforms, the chancellor managed to greatly disorientate the national liberals and win over the centrists, which was simply unimaginable a few years earlier. It became clear that the Kulturkampf period had been overcome.
Fearing a rapprochement between France and Russia, Bismarck renewed the Union of the Three Emperors in 1881, but relations between Germany and Russia continued to be strained, which was exacerbated by increased contacts between St. Petersburg and Paris. Fearing the performance of Russia and France against Germany, as a counterbalance to the Franco-Russian alliance, in 1882 an agreement was signed on the creation of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy).
The elections of 1881 were actually a defeat for Bismarck: Bismarck's conservative parties and liberals lost to the Center Party, progressive liberals and socialists. The situation became even more serious when the opposition parties united in order to cut the cost of maintaining the army. Once again, there was a danger that Bismarck would not stay in the chancellor's chair. Constant work and unrest undermined Bismarck's health - he was too fat and suffered from insomnia. Dr. Schwenniger helped him regain his health, who put the chancellor on a diet and forbade drinking strong wines. The result was not long in coming - very soon the former efficiency returned to the chancellor, and he set to work with renewed vigor.
This time, colonial politics came into his field of vision. For the previous twelve years, Bismarck had argued that colonies were a luxury that Germany could not afford. But in the course of 1884 Germany acquired vast territories in Africa. German colonialism brought Germany closer to her eternal rival France, but created tension with England. Otto von Bismarck managed to draw his son Herbert into the colonial affairs, who was involved in settling issues with England. But there were also enough problems with his son - he inherited only bad traits from his father and drank.
In March 1887, Bismarck succeeded in forming a stable conservative majority in the Reichstag, which was nicknamed "The Cartel". In the wake of chauvinistic hysteria and the threat of war with France, the voters decided to rally around the Chancellor. This gave him the opportunity to push through the Reichstag a law on a seven-year term of service. At the beginning of 1888, Emperor Wilhelm I died, which did not bode well for the chancellor.
The new emperor was Frederick III, terminally ill with throat cancer, who by that time was in a terrible physical and mental state. He also died a few months later. The throne of the empire was occupied by the young Wilhelm II, who was rather cool towards the chancellor. The emperor began to actively intervene in politics, pushing the elderly Bismarck into the background. Particularly divisive was the anti-socialist bill, in which social reforms went hand in hand with political repression (which was very much in the spirit of the Chancellor). This conflict led Bismarck to resign on March 20, 1890.
Otto von Bismarck spent the rest of his life in his Friedrichsruhe estate near Hamburg, rarely leaving it. In 1884 his wife Johanna died. AT last years of his life, Bismarck was pessimistic about the prospects for European politics. Emperor Wilhelm II visited him several times. In 1898, the health of the ex-chancellor deteriorated sharply, and on July 30 he died in Friedrichsruhe.
Name: Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen
State: Prussia
Field of activity: Policy
Greatest Achievement: Became chancellor of Prussia, united Germany.
Otto von Bismarck is one of the brightest personalities in the history of Germany. Prussia achieved absolute supremacy in Europe in many respects thanks to its policy of "iron and blood". Bismarck became a folk hero, founding father and first chancellor of the Second Reich, whose name was associated with social reforms and with the struggle against socialism and catholic church. His era ended in 1890, but the memory of his outstanding achievements is alive to this day.
Childhood and youth
Otto von Bismarck was born in 1815 in Schönhausen in the Brandenburg province. His mother belonged to a prominent family of scientists, and his father was a hereditary nobleman with considerable influence in the political arena. It was he who became an example for his son, who after school began to study law in Göttingen and Berlin.
When Bismarck's mother dies in 1838, he interrupts his studies and returns to his native estate, which he manages with his brother, Bernhard. After the death of Bismarck Sr. in 1845, Otto becomes the full owner of Schönhausen. He actively enjoys and enjoys all the privileges of the life of a wealthy squire and marries a Catholic Johanna von Putkammer, with whom he has three children - Marie, Herbert and Wilhelm.
The beginning of the political path
In addition to managing the estate of his father, Bismarck begins to actively manifest himself in the political sphere. Coming from a deeply conservative family, he was an ardent conservative and supporter of the monarchy. It is not surprising that during the revolutionary events of 1848-49 in Germany, he fully supported Frederick William IV.
The king appreciated Bismarck's loyalty and in 1851 sent him to Frankfurt am Main, where he represented the interests of Prussia in the German Confederation until 1859.
An ardent supporter of the unification of Germany, Bismarck was extremely negative about any attempts by Austria to show his superiority (in particular, the intention to mobilize German troops during the Crimean War) and tried by all means to expand and strengthen the influence of Prussia.
Path to power
A huge role in the life and outlook of Bismarck was played by his service in St. Petersburg as a diplomat. During the three years spent in Russia (1859-1862), he managed to learn the language quite tolerably and become imbued with culture, which subsequently had a significant impact on his approach to relations with the Russian Empire.
In 1862, he returned to his homeland - the return is very welcome: discord reigns in the country between the branches of power. Soon the Kaiser appoints him first head of government, and then minister of foreign affairs.
According to Bismarck himself, Prussia and Austria had only one solution in the struggle for supremacy - "not with speeches, but with iron and blood." It is noteworthy that the authorship of the expression "The winner is always right" is also attributed to Bismarck. War and violence, apparently, for this man have always been the only and most the right way achieving the desired result.
Prussian victory
A flourishing national consciousness, dreams of a united and powerful nation fueled Bismarck in his desire for unification.
When a conflict broke out with Denmark over the issue of Schleswig and Holstein - Danish territories with ethnic Germans living there, Bismarck did not hesitate for a long time. By joining forces with Austria, the Prussian troops won, and in the course of short and effective battles, Schleswig fell into the possession of Prussia, and Holstein went to Austria. But, allies in the same war, Prussia and Austria still remained enemies in the battle for supremacy.
In 1866, she joined forces with Italy, which had plans for part of Austria - Venice. The Italian-Prussian alliance succeeded, and Austria lost, ceding the lands it claimed to Prussia and signing a peace treaty.
In 1867, the North German Confederation was formed, whose chancellor and author of the Constitution was Bismarck. It would seem that his dreams of a united state began to come true, but no - the main contender for the Spanish throne was Leopold, a prince from the house of Hohenzollern, and if Alexander II was not particularly worried about this, the French government was puzzled by this fact. To allow a German subject to occupy such an important office would be folly. Fuel to the fire was added by the fact that the lands in southern Germany were in the hands of France, which significantly hindered the unification. Bismarck needed a war, he needed blood and iron to finish what he started.
Having forged a telegram allegedly written by Wilhelm I to Napoleon III, Bismarck endowed it with an extremely derogatory content for the latter, and then publicly announces this in the newspapers. Of course, France immediately declares war, which it loses. As a result, Prussia annexes the southern lands of France. On January 18, 1871, the creation of the Second Reich was announced, Wilhelm I received the title of emperor, and Bismarck was awarded the title of prince and estate.
Kulturkampf
Huge territories and the growth of industry make Germany one of the strongest powers, but the rapid unification of such vast lands also united territories inhabited by people with very different cultures and religions, warring clans and communities. The so-called Kulturkampf began - Bismarck's struggle for the cultural unity of the Reich.
Since 1873 all religious organizations controlled by the state, and marriage was henceforth recognized as legal only after registration in an official institution. The autonomy of the church has been abolished.
Change of power and resignation
Bismarck also authored a number of social reforms that significantly improved the lives of the representatives of the working class and, for sure, could still serve the motherland, but in 1888 he takes the throne - ambitious and young, who did not want to fight for public attention with the famous chancellor. Bismarck resigns and receives the title of duke, but he is not going to leave politics at all - he has done too much, his memories are too fresh.
Trying to influence his own image in the popular mind and not lose influence, Bismarck publishes memoirs, and also regularly publishes critical essays and articles about members of the Reichstag and about Wilhelm II himself.
Last years
The death of his wife in 1894 greatly affected Bismarck's emotional and physical state, and his health began to deteriorate. The great and terrible, the most controversial politician of his time (and not only) died in 1898, leaving a deep mark on the history and hearts of people.
Bismarck-Schonhausen Otto Eduard Leopold von (1815-1898) - prince, German statesman, first chancellor of the German Empire (Second Reich), nicknamed the "Iron Chancellor". He had the honorary rank (peacetime) of the Prussian Colonel General with the rank of Field Marshal (March 20, 1890).
German statesman, Chancellor of the German Empire. Born April 1, 1815 in the family estate of Schönhausen in Brandenburg, the third son of Ferdinand von Bismarck-Schönhausen and Wilhelmina Mencken, at birth received the name Otto Eduard Leopold.
At the age of 17, Bismarck entered the University of Göttingen, where he studied law. When he was a student, he gained a reputation as a reveler and a fighter, and excelled in duels. In 1835 he received a diploma and was soon enlisted to work at the Berlin Municipal Court. In 1837 he took the post of tax official in Aachen, a year later - the same position in Potsdam. There he joined the Guards Jaeger Regiment. In the autumn of 1838, Bismarck moved to Greifswald, where, in addition to performing his military duties, he studied animal breeding methods at the Elden Academy. His father's financial loss, together with an innate distaste for the lifestyle of a Prussian official, forced him to leave the service in 1839 and take over the management of the family estates in Pomerania. Bismarck continued his education, taking up the works of Hegel, Kant, Spinoza, D. Strauss and Feuerbach. In addition, he traveled in England and France. Later he joined the Pietists.
After the death of his father in 1845, the family property was divided and Bismarck received the estates of Schönhausen and Kniephof in Pomerania. In 1847 he married Johanna von Puttkamer. Among his new friends in Pomerania were Ernst Leopold von Gerlach and his brother, who not only were at the head of the Pomeranian pietists, but were also part of a group of court advisers. Bismarck, a pupil of the Gerlachs, became known for his conservative stance during the constitutional struggle in Prussia in 1848-1850. Opposing liberals, Bismarck contributed to the creation of various political organizations and newspapers, including the "New Prussian newspaper" ("Neue Preussische Zeitung"). He was a member of the lower house of the Prussian Parliament in 1849 and of the Erfurt Parliament in 1850, when he spoke out against a federation of German states (with or without Austria), because he believed that this union would strengthen the revolutionary movement that was gaining strength. In his Olmutz speech, Bismarck spoke in defense of King Frederick William IV, who capitulated to Austria and Russia. The satisfied monarch wrote about Bismarck: "An ardent reactionary. Use later."
In May 1851, the king appointed Bismarck the representative of Prussia in the allied diet in Frankfurt am Main. There, Bismarck almost immediately concluded that Prussia's goal could not be a German confederation under Austrian dominance, and that war with Austria was inevitable if Prussia were to dominate a united Germany. As Bismarck improved in the study of diplomacy and the art of government, he increasingly moved away from the views of the king and his camarilla. For his part, the king began to lose confidence in Bismarck. In 1859, the king's brother Wilhelm, who was then regent, relieved Bismarck of his duties and sent him as an envoy to St. Petersburg. There Bismarck became close to Russian minister Foreign Affairs Prince A.M. Gorchakov, who assisted Bismarck in his efforts to diplomatically isolate first Austria and then France.
Minister-President of Prussia. In 1862 Bismarck was sent as an envoy to France at the court of Napoleon III. He was soon recalled by King William I to resolve the contradictions on the issue of military appropriations, which was vigorously discussed in the lower house of parliament. In September of the same year, he became the head of the government, and a little later - the minister-president and minister of foreign affairs of Prussia. A militant conservative, Bismarck announced to the liberal middle-class majority in parliament that the government would continue to collect taxes in accordance with the old budget, because parliament, due to internal contradictions, would not be able to pass the new budget. (This policy continued in 1863-1866, which allowed Bismarck to hold military reform.) At a meeting of the parliamentary committee on September 29, Bismarck emphasized: "The great questions of the time will be decided not by speeches and resolutions of the majority - this was a gross mistake in 1848 × 1949 - but by iron and blood." Since the upper and lower houses of parliament were unable to develop a unified strategy on the issue of national defense, the government, according to Bismarck, should take the initiative and force parliament to agree to its decisions. By limiting the activities of the press, Bismarck took serious measures to suppress the opposition.
For their part, the liberals sharply criticized Bismarck for offering to support the Russian Emperor Alexander II in suppressing Polish uprising 1863-1864 (Alvensleben convention 1863). Over the next decade, Bismarck's policy led to three wars, the result of which was the unification of the German states in the North German Confederation in 1867: the war with Denmark (the Danish war of 1864), Austria (the Austro-Prussian war of 1866) and France (the Franco-Prussian war of 1870). -1871). On April 9, 1866, the day after Bismarck signed a secret agreement on a military alliance with Italy in the event of an attack on Austria, he submitted to the Bundestag his draft of a German parliament and universal secret suffrage for the country's male population. After the decisive Battle of Kötiggrätz (Sadova), Bismarck managed to get the annexationist claims of Wilhelm I and the Prussian generals to be abandoned and offered an honorable peace to Austria (Prague Peace of 1866). In Berlin, Bismarck introduced a bill to Parliament exempting him from liability for unconstitutional acts, which was approved by the Liberals. In the next three years, Bismarck's secret diplomacy was directed against France. The publication in the press of the Ems Dispatch of 1870 (as edited by Bismarck) caused such indignation in France that on July 19, 1870, war was declared, which Bismarck actually won by diplomatic means even before it began.
Chancellor of the German Empire. In 1871, at Versailles, Wilhelm I inscribed on an envelope an address to the "Chancellor of the German Empire", thus confirming Bismarck's right to rule the empire that he created and which was proclaimed on January 18 in the hall of mirrors at Versailles. The "Iron Chancellor", representing the interests of the minority and absolute power, ruled this empire in 1871-1890, relying on the consent of the Reichstag, where from 1866 to 1878 he was supported by the National Liberal Party. Bismarck reformed German law, administration and finance. The education reforms he carried out in 1873 led to a conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, but the main cause of the conflict was the growing distrust of German Catholics (who accounted for about a third of the country's population) in Protestant Prussia. When these contradictions surfaced in the activities of the Catholic "Centre" party in the Reichstag in the early 1870s, Bismarck was forced to take action. The struggle against the dominance of the Catholic Church was called "kulturkampf" (Kulturkampf, struggle for culture). During it, many bishops and priests were arrested, hundreds of dioceses were left without leaders. Now church appointments had to be coordinated with the state; clerics could not be in the service of the state apparatus.
In the field of foreign policy, Bismarck made every effort to consolidate the gains of the Frankfurt Peace of 1871, contributed to the diplomatic isolation of the French Republic, and sought to prevent the formation of any coalition that threatened German hegemony. He chose not to participate in the discussion of claims to the weakened Ottoman Empire. When at the Berlin Congress of 1878, under the chairmanship of Bismarck, the next phase of the discussion of the "Eastern Question" ended, he played the role of an "honest broker" in the dispute between the rival parties. The secret treaty with Russia in 1887 - the "treaty of reinsurance" - showed Bismarck's ability to act behind the backs of his allies, Austria and Italy, to maintain the status quo in the Balkans and the Middle East.
Until 1884, Bismarck did not give clear definitions of the course of colonial policy, mainly because of friendly relations with England. Other reasons were the desire to preserve Germany's capital and keep government spending to a minimum. Bismarck's first expansionist plans provoked vigorous protests from all parties—Catholics, statesmen, socialists, and even representatives of his own class, the Junkers. Despite this, under Bismarck, Germany began to turn into a colonial empire.
In 1879, Bismarck broke with the liberals and subsequently relied on a coalition of large landowners, industrialists, and senior military and government officials. He gradually moved from the Kulturkampf policy to the persecution of socialists. The constructive side of his negative prohibitive position was the introduction of a system of state insurance for sickness (1883), in case of injury (1884) and old-age pensions (1889). However, these measures failed to isolate the German workers from the Social Democratic Party, although they diverted them from the revolutionary methods of solving social problems. At the same time, Bismarck opposed any legislation regulating the working conditions of workers.
Conflict with Wilhelm II. With the accession to the throne of Wilhelm II in 1888, Bismarck lost control of the government. Under Wilhelm I and Frederick III, who ruled for less than six months, Bismarck's position could not be shaken by any of the opposition groups. The self-confident and ambitious Kaiser refused to play a secondary role, and his strained relationship with the Reich Chancellor became increasingly strained. The differences were most serious on the issue of amending the Exceptional Law against Socialists (in force in 1878-1890) and on the issue of the right of ministers subordinate to the chancellor to a personal audience with the emperor. Wilhelm II hinted to Bismarck about the desirability of his resignation and received a letter of resignation from Bismarck on March 18, 1890. The resignation was accepted two days later, Bismarck received the title of Duke of Lauenburg, he was also awarded the rank of Colonel General of the cavalry.
Bismarck's removal to Friedrichsruhe was not the end of his interest in political life. He was especially eloquent in his criticism of the newly appointed Chancellor and Minister-President Count Leo von Caprivi. In 1891, Bismarck was elected to the Reichstag from Hanover, but never took his seat there, and two years later refused to run for re-election. In 1894, the emperor and the already aging Bismarck met again in Berlin - at the suggestion of Clovis Hohenlohe, Prince Schillingfurst, Caprivi's successor. In 1895, all of Germany celebrated the 80th anniversary of the Iron Chancellor. Bismarck died in Friedrichsruhe on July 30, 1898.
Bismarck's literary monument is his Thoughts and Memoirs (Gedanken und Erinnerungen), and the Great Politics of European Cabinets (Die grosse Politik der europaischen Kabinette, 1871-1914, 1924-1928) in 47 volumes serves as a monument to his diplomatic art.
Bismarck's childhood and youth
Bismarck - landowner
Bismarck's entry into politics
Otto von Bismarck - Chancellor of the German Empire
Conflict with Wilhelm II and Bismarck's resignation
References
Bismarck's childhood and youth.
Otto von Bismarck (Eduard Leopold von Schönhausen) was born on April 1, 1815 in the family estate of Schönhausen in Brandenburg northwest of Berlin, the third son of the Prussian landowner Ferdinand von Bismarck-Schönhausen and Wilhelmina Mencken, at birth he received the name Otto Eduard Leopold.
Schönhausen Manor was located in the heart of the province of Brandenburg, which occupied a special place in the history of early Germany. Five miles to the west of the estate was the Elbe River, the main waterway of Northern Germany. Schönhausen Manor has been in the hands of the Bismarck family since 1562.
All generations of this family served the rulers of Brandenburg in peace and military fields.
The Bismarcks were considered Junkers, descendants of the conquering knights who founded the first German settlements in the vast lands east of the Elbe with a small Slavic population. Junkers belonged to the nobility, but in terms of wealth, influence and social status, they could not be compared with the aristocrats of Western Europe and the Habsburg possessions. The Bismarcks, of course, did not belong to the ranks of the land magnates; they were also pleased with the fact that they could boast of a noble origin - their genealogy can be traced back to the reign of Charlemagne.
Otto von Bismarck in his youth
Wilhelmina, Otto's mother, came from a family of civil servants and belonged to the middle class. Such marriages increased in the nineteenth century as the educated middle classes and the old aristocracy began to coalesce into a new elite.
At the urging of Wilhelmina, Bernhard, the elder brother, and Otto were sent to study at the Plamann School in Berlin, where Otto studied from 1822 to 1827. At the age of 12, Otto left school and moved to the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium, where he studied for three years. In 1830, Otto moved to the gymnasium "At the Gray Monastery", where he felt freer than in previous educational institutions. Neither mathematics, nor the history of the ancient world, nor the achievements of the new German culture attracted the attention of the young cadet. Most of all, Otto was interested in the politics of past years, the history of military and peaceful rivalry between different countries.
After graduating from high school, on May 10, 1832, at the age of 17, Otto entered the University of Göttingen, where he studied law. When he was a student, he gained a reputation as a reveler and a fighter, and excelled in duels. Otto played cards for money and drank a lot. In September 1833, Otto moved to the New Capital University in Berlin, where life turned out to be cheaper. To be more precise, Bismarck was only listed at the university, since he hardly attended lectures, but used the services of tutors who attended him before exams. In 1835 he received a diploma and was soon enlisted to work at the Berlin Municipal Court. In 1837, Otto took up the post of tax official in Aachen, a year later - the same post in Potsdam. There he joined the Guards Jaeger Regiment. In the autumn of 1838, Bismarck moved to Greifswald, where, in addition to performing his military duties, he studied animal breeding methods at the Elden Academy.
Bismarck is a landowner.
On January 1, 1839, Otto von Bismarck's mother, Wilhelmina, died. The death of his mother did not make a strong impression on Otto: only much later came to him a true assessment of her qualities. However, this event resolved for some time an urgent problem - what should he do after the end of his military service. Otto helped his brother Bernhard manage the Pomeranian estates, and their father returned to Schönhausen. His father's financial loss, together with an innate distaste for the lifestyle of a Prussian official, forced Bismarck to resign in September 1839 and take over the management of the family estates in Pomerania. In private conversations, Otto explained this by the fact that, due to his temperament, he was not suitable for the position of a subordinate. He did not tolerate any superiors over himself: "My pride requires me to command, and not to fulfill other people's orders." Otto von Bismarck, like his father, decided to "live and die in the countryside".
Otto von Bismarck himself studied accounting, chemistry, and agriculture. His brother, Bernhard, took almost no part in the management of the estates. Bismarck turned out to be a quick-witted and practical landowner, having won the respect of his neighbors both with his theoretical knowledge Agriculture and practical success. The value of the estates rose by more than a third in the nine years Otto ruled them, with three of the nine years experiencing a widespread agricultural crisis. And yet Otto could not be just a landowner.
Johanna von Puttkamer - wife of Otto von Bismarck
He shocked his junker neighbors by driving around their meadows and forests on his huge stallion Caleb, not caring who these lands belonged to. In the same way, he acted in relation to the daughters of neighboring peasants. Later, in a fit of remorse, Bismarck admitted that in those years he "did not shy away from any sin, making friends with bad company of any kind." Sometimes during the evening Otto lost at cards everything that he managed to save after months of painstaking management. Much of what he did was pointless. So, Bismarck used to notify friends of his arrival by shooting at the ceiling, and one day he appeared in a neighbor's living room and brought a frightened fox on a leash, like a dog, and then released her to loud hunting cries. For violent temper, the neighbors nicknamed him "mad Bismarck."
On the estate, Bismarck continued his education, taking up the works of Hegel, Kant, Spinoza, David Friedrich Strauss and Feuerbach. Otto was an excellent student of English literature, for Bismarck was more interested in England and her affairs than in any other country. Intellectually, the "mad Bismarck" was far superior to his neighbors - the junkers.
In mid-1841, Otto von Bismarck wanted to marry Ottoline von Puttkamer, the daughter of a wealthy Junker. However, her mother refused him, and in order to unwind Otto went traveling, visiting England and France. This vacation helped Bismarck to dispel the boredom of rural life in Pomerania. Bismarck became more sociable and made many friends.
Bismarck's entry into politics.
After his father's death in 1845, the family property was divided and Bismarck received the Schönhausen and Kniephof estates in Pomerania. In 1847 he married Johanna von Puttkamer, a distant relative of the girl he courted in 1841. Among his new friends in Pomerania were Ernst Leopold von Gerlach and his brother, who not only were at the head of the Pomeranian pietists, but were also part of a group of court advisers.
Friedrich Wilhelm IV (1795-1861), Prussian king from 1840, from the Hohenzollern dynasty
Bismarck, a student of Gerlach, became known for his conservative stance during the constitutional struggle in Prussia in 1848-1850. From a "mad junker" Bismarck turned into a "mad deputy" of the Berlin Landtag. Opposing liberals, Bismarck contributed to the creation of various political organizations and newspapers, including the "New Prussian newspaper" ("Neue Preussische Zeitung"). He was a member of the lower house of the Prussian parliament in 1849 and of the Erfurt parliament in 1850, when he opposed a federation of German states (with or without Austria), because he believed that this union would strengthen the revolutionary movement that was gaining strength. In his Olmutz speech, Bismarck spoke in defense of King Frederick William IV, who capitulated to Austria and Russia. The satisfied monarch wrote about Bismarck: "An ardent reactionary. Use later."
In May 1851, the King appointed Bismarck as Prussian representative to the Allied Diet in Frankfurt am Main. There, Bismarck almost immediately concluded that Prussia's goal could not be a German confederation under Austrian dominance, and that war with Austria was inevitable if Prussia were to dominate a united Germany. As Bismarck improved in the study of diplomacy and the art of government, he increasingly moved away from the views of the king and his camarilla. For his part, the king began to lose confidence in Bismarck. In 1859, the king's brother Wilhelm, who was then regent, relieved Bismarck of his duties and sent him as an envoy to St. Petersburg. There, Bismarck became close to the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince A.M. Gorchakov, who assisted Bismarck in his efforts to diplomatically isolate first Austria and then France.
Otto von Bismarck - Minister-President of Prussia. His diplomacy.
In 1862, Bismarck was sent as an envoy to France at the court of Napoleon III. He was soon recalled by King William I to resolve the contradictions on the issue of military appropriations, which was vigorously discussed in the lower house of parliament.
Wilhelm I of Hohenzollern (1797-1888), King of Prussia from 1861 and German Emperor from 1871
In September of the same year, he became the head of the government, and a little later - the minister-president and minister of foreign affairs of Prussia.
A militant conservative, Bismarck announced to the liberal middle-class majority in parliament that the government would continue to collect taxes in accordance with the old budget, because parliament, due to internal contradictions, would not be able to pass the new budget. (This policy continued in 1863-1866, which allowed Bismarck to carry out military reform.) At a meeting of the parliamentary committee on September 29, Bismarck emphasized: "The great questions of the time will not be decided by speeches and majority resolutions - this was a blunder in 1848 and 1949 - but iron and blood." Since the upper and lower houses of parliament were unable to develop a unified strategy on the issue of national defense, the government, according to Bismarck, should take the initiative and force parliament to agree with its decisions. By limiting the activities of the press, Bismarck took serious measures to suppress the opposition.
For their part, the liberals sharply criticized Bismarck for offering to support the Russian Emperor Alexander II in suppressing the Polish uprising of 1863-1864 (the Alvensleben convention of 1863). Over the next decade, Bismarck's policies led to three wars: the war with Denmark in 1864, after which Schleswig, Holstein (Holstein) and Lauenburg were annexed to Prussia; Austria in 1866; and France (the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871).
On April 9, 1866, the day after Bismarck signed a secret agreement on a military alliance with Italy in the event of an attack on Austria, he submitted to the Bundestag his draft of a German parliament and universal secret suffrage for the country's male population.
After the decisive battle of Kötiggrätz (Sadovaya), in which German troops defeated the Austrian, Bismarck managed to achieve the rejection of the annexationist claims of Wilhelm I and the Prussian generals, who wanted to enter Vienna and demanded large territorial acquisitions, and offered Austria an honorable peace (Prague Peace of 1866). Bismarck did not allow Wilhelm I to "bring Austria to its knees" by occupying Vienna. The future chancellor insisted on relatively easy peace terms for Austria in order to ensure her neutrality in the future conflict between Prussia and France, which year by year became inevitable. Austria was expelled from the German Confederation, Venice joined Italy, Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Kasel, Frankfurt, Schleswig and Holstein went to Prussia.
One of the most important consequences of the Austro-Prussian war was the formation of the North German Confederation, which, along with Prussia, included about 30 more states. All of them, according to the constitution adopted in 1867, formed a single territory with laws and institutions common to all. External and military policy Union was actually transferred into the hands of the Prussian king, who was declared its president. A customs and military treaty was soon concluded with the South German states. These steps clearly showed that Germany was rapidly moving towards its unification under the leadership of Prussia.
Alexander II the Liberator (1818-81), Russian Emperor from 1855
The southern German lands of Bavaria, Wurtenberg, and Baben remained outside the North German Confederation. France did everything possible to prevent Bismarck from including these lands in the North German Confederation. Napoleon 3 did not want to see a united Germany on its eastern borders. Bismarck understood that without a war this problem could not be solved. In the next three years, Bismarck's secret diplomacy was directed against France. In Berlin, Bismarck introduced a bill to Parliament exempting him from liability for unconstitutional acts, which was approved by the Liberals. French and Prussian interests kept clashing on various issues. In France at that time militant anti-German sentiments were strong. Bismarck played on them.
The appearance of the "Ems dispatch" was caused by the scandalous events around the nomination of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern (nephew of Wilhelm I) to the Spanish throne, vacated after the revolution in Spain in 1868. Bismarck correctly calculated that France would never agree to such an option, and in the event of Leopold's accession in Spain, he would begin to rattle weapons and make belligerent statements against the North German Confederation, which would sooner or later end in war. Therefore, he vigorously promoted the candidacy of Leopold, assuring, however, Europe that the German government was completely uninvolved in the claims of the Hohenzollerns to the Spanish throne. In his circulars, and later in his memoirs, Bismarck denied his participation in this intrigue in every possible way, arguing that the nomination of Prince Leopold to the Spanish throne was a "family" affair of the Hohenzollerns. In fact, Bismarck and Minister of War Roon and Chief of Staff Moltke, who came to his aid, spent a lot of effort to convince the reluctant Wilhelm I to support Leopold's candidacy.
Moltke (Senior) Helmut Karl (1800-91), Count (1870), German Field Marshal General (1871) and military theorist. Since 1858 the chief of the Prussian, in 1871-88 the German General Staff, in fact the commander in chief in the wars with Denmark, Austria and France
As Bismarck had hoped, Leopold's bid for the Spanish throne caused an uproar in Paris. On July 6, 1870, the French Foreign Minister, the Duke de Gramont, exclaimed: "This will not happen, we are sure of it ... Otherwise, we would be able to fulfill our duty without showing any weakness or hesitation." After this statement, Prince Leopold, without any consultation with the king and Bismarck, announced that he was renouncing his claims to the Spanish throne.
This step was not included in Bismarck's plans. Leopold's refusal destroyed his hopes that France herself would unleash a war against the North German Confederation. This was fundamentally important for Bismarck, who sought to secure the neutrality of the leading European states in a future war, which he later succeeded largely due to the fact that France was the attacking side. It is difficult to judge how sincere Bismarck was in his memoirs when he wrote that upon receiving the news of Leopold's refusal to take the Spanish throne, "my first thought was to resign" (Bismarck repeatedly submitted his resignations to Wilhelm I, using them as one from the means of pressure on the king, who, without his chancellor, meant nothing in politics), however, another of his memoirs dating back to the same time looks quite authentic: “I already at that time considered the war a necessity, which we could not avoid with honor ".
While Bismarck was thinking about what other ways France could be provoked into declaring war, the French themselves gave a wonderful reason for this. On July 13, 1870, the French ambassador Benedetti appeared to Winhelm, who was resting on the waters of the Ems, in the morning and conveyed to him a rather impudent request from his minister Gramont to assure France that he (the king) would never give his consent if Prince Leopold again put forward his candidacy for the Spanish throne. The king, outraged by such a trick that was really daring for the diplomatic etiquette of those times, answered with a sharp refusal and interrupted Benedetti's audience. A few minutes later, he received a letter from his ambassador in Paris, which stated that Gramont insisted that Wilhelm, in his own hand, assure Napoleon III that he had no intention of harming the interests and dignity of France. This news completely pissed off William I. When Benedetti asked for a new audience for a conversation on this topic, he refused to receive him and conveyed through his adjutant that he had said his the last word.
Bismarck learned about these events from a dispatch sent that afternoon from Ems by adviser Abeken. The dispatch to Bismarck was delivered at lunchtime. Roon and Moltke dined with him. Bismarck read the dispatch to them. The dispatch made the most difficult impression on the two old soldiers. Bismarck recalled that Roon and Moltke were so upset that they "neglected food and drink." Having finished reading, after some time Bismarck asked Moltke about the state of the army and about its readiness for war. Moltke replied in the spirit that "an immediate outbreak of war is more advantageous than a delay." After that, Bismarck edited the telegram right there at the dinner table and read it to the generals. Here is its text: "After the news of the abdication of the Crown Prince of Hohenzollern was officially communicated to the French imperial government by the Spanish royal government, the French ambassador presented an additional demand to His Royal Majesty in Ems: to authorize him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King undertakes for all future times never give his consent if the Hohenzollerns return to their candidacy. His Majesty the King refused to receive the French ambassador again and ordered the adjutant on duty to tell him that his majesty had nothing more to tell the ambassador. "
Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon Bonaparte) (1808-73), French Emperor from 1852-1870
Even Bismarck's contemporaries suspected him of falsifying the Ems dispatch. The German Social Democrats Liebknecht and Bebel were the first to speak about this. Liebknecht in 1891 even published the pamphlet "The Ems Despatch, or How Wars Are Made". Bismarck, in his memoirs, wrote that he only crossed out "something" from the dispatch, but did not add "not a word" to it. What did Bismarck strike out of the Ems dispatch? First of all, something that could point to the true inspirer of the king's telegram appearing in print. Bismarck crossed out the wish of Wilhelm I to submit "to the discretion of your Excellency, i.e. Bismarck, the question of whether our representatives and the press should be informed of the new demand of Benedetti and the refusal of the king." To reinforce the impression of the French envoy's disrespect for William I, Bismarck did not include in the new text the mention that the king had responded to the ambassador "rather harshly." The rest of the reductions were not significant. New edition The Ems dispatch brought Roon and Moltke, who dined with Bismarck, out of depression. The latter exclaimed: "That sounds different; before it sounded like a signal to retreat, now it's a fanfare." Bismarck began to develop his future plans for them: “We must fight if we do not want to take on the role of the defeated without a fight. But success depends largely on the impressions that the origin of the war will cause in us and others; it is important that we are those who who was attacked, and Gallic arrogance and resentment will help us in this ... "
Further events unfolded in the most desirable direction for Bismarck. The publication of the "Ems dispatch" in many German newspapers caused an uproar in France. Foreign Minister Gramont shouted indignantly in parliament that Prussia had slapped France in the face. On July 15, 1870, the head of the French cabinet, Emile Olivier, demanded a loan of 50 million francs from Parliament and announced the government's decision to call up reservists into the army "in response to the call to war." The future President of France, Adolphe Thiers, who in 1871 would make peace with Prussia and drown the Paris Commune in blood, was still a member of parliament in July 1870, and was perhaps the only sensible politician in France in those days. He tried to convince the deputies to refuse credit to Olivier and to call up reservists, arguing that since Prince Leopold had renounced the Spanish crown, French diplomacy had achieved its goal and that one should not quarrel with Prussia over words and bring matters to a rupture on a purely formal occasion. Olivier replied to this that he was "with a light heart" ready to bear the responsibility that henceforth fell on him. In the end, the deputies approved all the proposals of the government, and on July 19, France declared war on the North German Confederation.
Bismarck meanwhile communicated with the deputies of the Reichstag. It was important for him to carefully hide from the public his painstaking behind-the-scenes work to provoke France into declaring war. With his usual hypocrisy and resourcefulness, Bismarck convinced the deputies that in the whole story with Prince Leopold, the government and he personally did not participate. He shamelessly lied when he told the deputies that he learned about Prince Leopold's desire to take the Spanish throne not from the king, but from some "private person", that the North German ambassador left Paris himself "for personal reasons", but was not recalled by the government (in fact, Bismarck ordered the ambassador to leave France, being annoyed by his "softness" towards the French). Bismarck diluted this lie with a dose of truth. He did not lie when he said that the decision to publish the dispatch about the negotiations in Ems between William I and Benedetti was made by the government at the request of the king himself.
William I himself did not expect that the publication of the Ems Dispatch would lead to such a quick war with France. After reading Bismarck's edited text in the papers, he exclaimed: "This is war!" The king was afraid of this war. Bismarck later wrote in his memoirs that William I should not have negotiated with Benedetti at all, but he "left his person as a monarch to the shameless processing of this foreign agent" largely due to the fact that he succumbed to the pressure of his wife Queen Augusta with "her justified in a feminine way by timidity and the national feeling that she lacked. Thus, Bismarck used Wilhelm I as a front for his behind-the-scenes intrigues against France.
When the Prussian generals began to win victory after victory over the French, not a single major European power stood up for France. This was the result of the preliminary diplomatic activity of Bismarck, who managed to achieve the neutrality of Russia and England. He promised Russia neutrality in the event of its withdrawal from the humiliating Treaty of Paris, which forbade it to have its own fleet in the Black Sea, the British were outraged by the draft treaty published at the direction of Bismarck on the annexation of Belgium by France . But the most important thing was that it was France that attacked the North German Confederation, despite the repeated peace-loving intentions and small concessions that Bismarck made towards her (withdrawal of Prussian troops from Luxembourg in 1867, statements of readiness to abandon Bavaria and create from it a neutral country, etc.). In editing the Ems dispatch, Bismarck did not impulsively improvise, but was guided by the real achievements of his diplomacy and therefore emerged victorious. And the winners, as you know, are not judged. The authority of Bismarck, even in retirement, was so high in Germany that it never occurred to anyone (except the Social Democrats) to pour tubs of dirt on him when, in 1892, the original text of the Ems dispatch was made public from the Reichstag rostrum.
Frederick III - German emperor and Prussian king after Wilhelm I, reigned 99 days
Otto von Bismarck - Chancellor of the German Empire.
Exactly one month after the start of hostilities, a significant part of the French army was surrounded by German troops near Sedan and capitulated. Napoleon III himself surrendered to William I.
In November 1870, the South German states joined the Unified German Confederation, which had been transformed from the North. In December 1870, the Bavarian king offered to restore the German Empire and the German imperial dignity, destroyed in his time by Napoleon. This proposal was accepted, and the Reichstag turned to Wilhelm I with a request to accept imperial crown. In 1871, at Versailles, Wilhelm I inscribed on an envelope an address to the "Chancellor of the German Empire", thus confirming Bismarck's right to rule the empire that he created, and which was proclaimed on January 18 in the mirror hall of Versailles. On March 2, 1871, the Treaty of Paris was concluded - difficult and humiliating for France. The border regions of Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to Germany. France had to pay 5 billion indemnities. Wilhelm I returned to Berlin as a triumph, although all the merit belonged to the Chancellor.
The "Iron Chancellor", representing the interests of the minority and absolute power, ruled this empire in 1871-1890, relying on the consent of the Reichstag, where from 1866 to 1878 he was supported by the National Liberal Party. Bismarck reformed German law, administration and finance. The educational reforms he carried out in 1873 led to a conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, but the main reason for the conflict was the growing distrust of German Catholics (who accounted for about a third of the country's population) in Protestant Prussia. When these contradictions surfaced in the activities of the Catholic "Centre" party in the Reichstag in the early 1870s, Bismarck was forced to take action. The struggle against the dominance of the Catholic Church was called "kulturkampf" (Kulturkampf, struggle for culture). During it, many bishops and priests were arrested, hundreds of dioceses were left without leaders. Now church appointments had to be coordinated with the state; church employees could not be in the service of the state apparatus. Schools were separated from the church, civil marriage was introduced, the Jesuits were expelled from Germany.
Bismarck built his foreign policy on the basis of the situation that developed in 1871 after the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war and the capture of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany, which became a source of constant tension. By using complex system alliances that ensured the isolation of France, the rapprochement of Germany with Austria-Hungary and the maintenance of good relations with Russia (the alliance of the three emperors - Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia in 1873 and 1881; the Austro-German alliance of 1879; the "Triple Alliance" between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1882; "Mediterranean agreement" in 1887 between Austria-Hungary, Italy and England and "reinsurance agreement" with Russia in 1887) Bismarck managed to maintain peace in Europe. The German Empire under Chancellor Bismarck became one of the leaders in international politics.
In foreign policy, Bismarck made every effort to consolidate the gains of the Peace of Frankfurt in 1871, contributed to the diplomatic isolation of the French Republic, and sought to prevent the formation of any coalition that threatened German hegemony. He chose not to participate in the discussion of claims to the weakened Ottoman Empire. When at the Berlin Congress of 1878, under the chairmanship of Bismarck, the next phase of the discussion of the "Eastern Question" ended, he played the role of an "honest broker" in the dispute between the rival parties. Although the "Triple Alliance" was directed against Russia and France, Otto von Bismarck believed that a war with Russia would be extremely dangerous for Germany. The secret treaty with Russia in 1887 - the "treaty of reinsurance" - showed Bismarck's ability to act behind the backs of his allies, Austria and Italy, to maintain the status quo in the Balkans and the Middle East.
Until 1884, Bismarck did not give clear definitions of the course of colonial policy, mainly because of friendly relations with England. Other reasons were the desire to preserve Germany's capital and keep government spending to a minimum. Bismarck's first expansionist plans provoked vigorous protests from all parties - Catholics, statesmen, socialists and even representatives of his own class - the Junkers. Despite this, under Bismarck, Germany began to turn into a colonial empire.
In 1879, Bismarck broke with the liberals and henceforth relied on a coalition of large landowners, industrialists, senior military and government officials.
In 1879, Chancellor Bismarck secured the adoption by the Reichstag of a protectionist customs tariff. Liberals were forced out of big politics. The new course of German economic and financial policy corresponded to the interests of large industrialists and large farmers. Their union occupied a dominant position in political life and in public administration. Otto von Bismarck gradually moved from the Kulturkampf policy to the persecution of socialists. In 1878, after an attempt on the life of the emperor, Bismarck passed through the Reichstag an "exceptional law" against the socialists, which prohibited the activities of social democratic organizations. On the basis of this law, many newspapers and societies, often far from socialism, were closed. The constructive side of his negative prohibitive stance was the introduction of a system of state insurance for sickness in 1883, in case of injury in 1884 and an old-age pension in 1889. However, these measures failed to isolate the German workers from the Social Democratic Party, although they diverted them from the revolutionary methods of solving social problems. At the same time, Bismarck opposed any legislation regulating the working conditions of workers.
August Bebel (1840-1913), one of the founders (1869) and leader of the German Social Democratic Party and the 2nd International. Critic of Bismarck's policies
Conflict with Wilhelm II and the resignation of Bismarck.
With the accession of Wilhelm II in 1888, Bismarck lost control of the government.
Under Wilhelm I and Frederick III, who ruled for less than six months, Bismarck's position could not be shaken by any of the opposition groups. The self-confident and ambitious Kaiser refused to play a secondary role, declaring at one of the banquets in 1891: "There is only one master in the country - this is me, and I will not tolerate another"; and his strained relationship with the Reich Chancellor became increasingly strained. Differences manifested themselves most seriously in the question of amending the "Exceptional Law Against Socialists" (in force in 1878-1890) and in the question of the right of ministers subordinate to the chancellor to a personal audience with the emperor. Wilhelm II hinted to Bismarck that his resignation was desirable and received a letter of resignation from Bismarck on March 18, 1890. The resignation was accepted two days later, Bismarck received the title of Duke of Lauenburg, he was also awarded the rank of Colonel General of the cavalry.
Wilhelm II of Hohenzollern (1859-1941), German Emperor and King of Prussia 1888-1918, grandson of Wilhelm I. Deposed by the November Revolution of 1918
Bismarck's removal to Friedrichsruhe was not the end of his interest in political life. He was especially eloquent in his criticism of the newly appointed Chancellor and Minister-President Count Leo von Caprivi. In 1891, Bismarck was elected to the Reichstag from Hanover, but never took his seat there, and two years later refused to run for re-election. In 1894, the emperor and the already aging Bismarck met again in Berlin - at the suggestion of Clovis Hohenlohe, Prince Schillingfürst, Caprivi's successor. In 1895, all of Germany celebrated the 80th anniversary of the Iron Chancellor. In June 1896, Prince Otto von Bismarck participated in the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. Bismarck died in Friedrichsruhe on July 30, 1898. The "Iron Chancellor" was buried at his own request in his Friedrichsruhe estate, on the tombstone of his tomb was engraved with the inscription: "Devoted servant of the German Kaiser Wilhelm I." In April 1945, the house in Schönhausen, where Otto von Bismarck was born in 1815, was burned down. Soviet troops.
Bismarck's literary monument is his Thoughts and Memoirs (Gedanken und Erinnerungen), while Die grosse Politik der europaischen Kabinette (1871-1914, 1924-1928) in 47 volumes serves as a monument to his diplomatic art.
Retired "Iron Chancellor"
References.
1. Emil Ludwig. Bismarck. - M.: Zakharov-AST, 1999.
2. Alan Palmer. Bismarck. - Smolensk: Rusich, 1998.
3. Encyclopedia "The World Around Us" (cd)
Loading...